Playing unfairly: The discourse on violent videogames and society
The realm of videogames is a foreign one to society. Though people have been playing them since the 1970s the general public mostly ignored its existence till later when the development of technology improved the graphics of the games. Because of the realism of these games a growing concern of its effects on people playing them, particularly those of a violent nature have been raised and it was not after the Columbine shootings did the media begin to blame violent videogames for instilling bad influences upon the gamers who play them. In order to reflect on these accusations I will address the arguments and offer my research into two parts. The first part of my paper will debate on current discourses on media effects, its imputations and the counter arguments offered by different social scientists. The second part will introduce my research into current newspaper articles on videogames and its connection to violence while trying to offer the model of moral panics as an explanation for the videogame controversy.
“To seek for evidence of the ‘effects of media violence’ is to persist in asking simplistic questions about complicated social issues” (Buckingham 1997:67)
The debates around violent media causing heightened aggression and crime can be traced back as early as the 1940s where Dr. Fredric Wertham (1954) accused comic books of being a form of bad popular literature and the cause of juvenile delinquency. His book; Seduction of the Innocent (1954) blamed youth crime on the reading of comics; an accusation based on guilt by association which had a massive impact on American society. Although those charges have been challenged today new forms popular media are still the subject of media scrutiny and are repeatedly used to explain criminal activity especially in youths.
Current accusations on videogame violence are based on television violence studies that have been around since the 1970s (Unsworth & Ward, 2001; 184). There are allegedly two kinds of negative effects in children and adolescents watching violent television shows, one is long term; the other is short. Past research indicates that short-term effects include disinhibition (Berkowitz & Rawlings, 1963; 405-412) while long-term effects include accepting attitudes towards violence (Rule & Ferguson, 1986; 29-50).
Unsworth and Ward (2001; 184) categorize three distinct classes of effects on children to the repeated exposure of television violence. They are: the likelihood of using aggressive means to solve conflicts (Bandura, 1973 in Unsworth and Ward 2001), becoming anxious about the violence prevalent in society (Geen, 1976; 193-234) and becoming desensitized to violence (Rule & Ferguson, 1986; 29-50) which Anderson et al. (2004, 199) argues “there has been no research examining whether decreased arousal actually stimulates aggressive behavior, so the role of desensitization in determining short-term effects of exposure to game violence in the investigation is unknown.”
The main argument postulated by many is that since television violence causes the aforementioned effects, videogames will intensify the impact of aggressive behavior due to its interactivity (Gunter 1998). Games like the Grand Theft Auto series are blamed for influencing criminal activities and if a crime is committed the media is quick to find a connection between the criminal and videogames. But if videogames are seen then as something beyond television viewing it means that it warrants different approaches to the medium.
There are currently only three approaches to studying videogame effects; experimental, correlation and longitudinal (Porter & Starcevic, 2007; 423). Experimental research is done in labs and looks at hostility following a game session. It employs violent and non-violent games to get results and uses self-report on a hostility scale. There are many problems in using this form of research though. Firstly, the quantifying of violence, aggression and other variables as it is hard to define many terms when conducting such a research (Rutter & Bryce, 2006; 215). For example what constitutes game violence and how do you measure aggression, aggressive personality and aggressive behavior. And what should be deemed ‘violent’ and ‘non-violent’? (Goldstein, 2001). In addition, experimental studies only use small sample sizes which are not indicative of the general gaming populace (Goldstein, 2001) instead focusing on a small niche of gamers.
In fact, gamers are not a heterogeneous group. Factors such as frequency of play, commitment, gender, age and genre preference create different sub-groups of gamers (Rutter & Bryce, 2006; 216). A Halo enthusiast is different from a Final Fantasy one and even though you can find people playing the same game, their varying levels of completion (some just play through the storyline, others play to get full completion which includes finding secrets while a number play a couple of hours before stopping) and frequency (daily, weekly, once) are hard to categorize and quantify due to the countless combination of groups. This also means that if a participant engages in a videogame that he is not familiar with or does not like, his attitude and response can be misconstrued as “aggressive”.
Another problem with this research is that experiments are conducted in lab environments. Videogame playing is an everyday activity that is extrapolated into the everyday (Rutter & Bryce, 2006; 216). One can engage in this activity in many forms (on the couch, bus, toilet) and that it is of greater value to examine how individuals play and experience violent videogames in the context to their everyday lives. In summation, experimental research has its many flaws and is therefore inadequate to utilize in media effects of videogames.
Correlation research uses retrospect filling of survey forms in order to identify patterns of video game use in relation to personality and behavior. The problem here lies in the fact that such studies have a limited recall bias, participants may not accurately give impressions on videogames played, instead relying on what they feel to be the correct response (Porter & Starcevic, 2007; 423).
The other problem of correlation research is that there is often a confusion between ‘correlation’ and ‘causation’ (Rutter & Bryce, 2006; 213). If a correlation is significant (i.e. the frequency of violent videogame playing and the frequency of aggression increase similarly), it can be claimed that there is a relationship between the two variables but not one variable giving cause to another (violent videogame playing does not cause the aggression). Using this line of thought it can be argued using a bi-direction model that violent people choose to play violent games (Porter & Starcevic, 2007; 424). If that’s the case then it is unlikely that individuals with no predisposition towards aggressive behavior would respond aggressively to violent game content (Rutter & Bryce, 2006; 213).
Longitudinal research uses prospective naturalistic studies to get results and the problem with this model is that it looks at all kinds of violent media (movies, television shows etc.) which makes it difficult to pinpoint the effect of violent videogames by itself.
To go back to the aforementioned accusations based on violent television studies we can debate that the short and long term effects of media violence can be easily counted with the fact that short-term effects only offer a snapshot of relationships between the gamer and the violent game. A longer time frame (much longer than the one stated) should be given to carefully analyze the influence of media. However should such a research be considered, many problems such as high dropout rates and difficulties maintaining participant involvement, not to mention the exorbitant expenses would make it near impossible to conduct (Rutter & Bryce, 2006; 214).
The summary of points made so far have suggest that the research and theory that has been conducted and postulated so far has its flaws and it does not address fully the videogame and its relation to issues of violence properly. An alternative method in determining the effects of such games can be ethnography which engages in the gamers taste (genre, frequency, commitment) and lifestyle (where, when, how much of the game is played).
After offering evidence in the flaws of current research one can only speculate as to why the general consensus would try to convince us that playing videogames are bad. The reason that I propose is moral panics.
To further elaborate on this model I will explain the stages in detail by linking it to my research. I have chosen a UK newspaper, The Daily Mail and searched the current year for articles that connect videogames to violence. I randomly chose 10 articles and by describing its contents I will highlight the stages of moral panics evident in these articles.
“Men go mad in herds while they only recover their senses slowly, one by one” (Mackay, 1956; pxx)
The model of moral panics consists of many elements (primarily people) that dynamically interact with one another with the purpose of inducing fear and therefore unwarranted awareness and attention on a particular issue to the public. Cohen (1972; 9) coined the term moral panics and defined it firstly as “a condition, episode, person or group of persons emerges to become defined as a threat to societal values and interests.”
The first stage of moral panics concerns the object of the panic and its relation to the people involved. In this situation, violent videogames and its relation to the gamers who play these games. The current postulation is that the people who commit violent crimes are influenced by violent videogames and by association; people who play such games are likely to be more violent.
The Columbine massacre in 1999 was the turning point in the role of videogames and its perceptions by society. Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold mentioned the game Doom in the video they made before killing 12 fellow students and a teacher. Subsequent violent crimes by adolescents have since then been attributed to violent videogames such as Grand Theft Auto with families of the deceased, parent groups, solicitors and the media laying the blame on them (Porter & Starcevic, 2007; 423).
With the nature of the crimes by adolescents being presented in a stylized sensationalist fashion by the media, the moral panic is associated with the emergence of youth culture (i.e. videogame playing) whose behavior can be delinquent and attributed to violence or crime. Buzzwords such as ‘horror’, ‘fear’ and ‘ultra’ appear amongst the headlines with ‘video games’ in an attempt to induce the reader into a defensive and cautious mindset. Another way to sensationalize stories is to depict the criminal and link him to society via a generalization of a subset of people.
The people who commit crimes, together with the subset of people (gamers) are herded together and known as folk devils (Cohen, 1972; 10), they are the people whom society and the media deems we should not be by association and imitation of their practices; in this case gamers and the playing of violent videogames. The identity of the folk devil is created by the media and is subject to changes determined by them. This identity is a generalization of the group of people, not paying mind to the fact that no group is completely heterogeneous.
The idea of a folk devil never leaves society; it evolves throughout the decades and is a constant reminder by the media to the public that no one is truly safe from them. Cohen (1972; 11) describes the evolution starting from Mods to Rockers to Greasers to Student militants and so on cumulating in the modern day spot to put the gamer in as evident in the articles. The folk devil is then subjected to persecution by what is known as moral barricades.
Editors, politicians and other right thinking people are the moral barricades and creators of moral panics. Editors of the news have political alliances with right-winged politicians order to propagate ideology to the masses. Because they stand to profit from creating moral panics (editors from sales of newspapers and politicians with public approval) these group of people are collectively known as Moral Entrepreneurs (Becker, 1963). In the newspaper articles politicians from different parties (i.e. Conservative, Tory) are seen giving their support against violent videogames while calling for strict legislation against them.
The press then publishes these calls by politicians, and the public accepts them willingly because society has always looked to the news as a main source of information about the normative contours of society; it informs us about the right/wrong, boundaries and the current evils prevalent in our current era (Erickson, 2004; 7).
It is acknowledged that the mass media devote a great deal of space to deviance and (Cohen, 1972; 16) have always operated as agents of moral indignation without sufficient evidence as most are just opinions. The media actively construct meanings rather than simply reflecting and providing information and there are 3 processes involved (Critcher, 2003; 12) in the implementation of this stage by the media; firstly, the exaggeration and distortion of the seriousness of events by the use of buzz words, emotive sentencing and sensationalization.
Secondly, the prediction will reoccur again (usually as a result of the same trigger like playing violent video games) and finally the symbolization of the folk devil and how it encompasses the whole stereotype. In turn, the media leaves behind the diffuse feeling of anxiety about the situation (Cohen, 1972; 17) in order to generate concern from society.
The primary argument for editors and politicians alerting the public to moral panics is that they all believe “since marketing works in the world of goods, images of crime and violence probably promoted deviant behavior” (Murdock, 1997; 74). The perceived disorders of the present are often counter posed against an idealized image of the past which, due to selective recall ignores moral panics on media effects of the past (i.e. the comic book persecution), this ‘new media corrupting youth/women/minorities’ is not a new phenomenon (Rutter & Bryce, 2006; 207).
According to Petly (1997; 87), the middle class (Moral Entrepreneurs) have been quick to disapprove of popular entertainment that the working class indulges in the past. Their justification being that they are more likely to be affected by media messages than the middle class are. This is unfounded (Petley 1997; 100) yet the media still use it to propagate these ideas and directed against an outgroup (folk devils); their power to justify discrimination is enormous (Critcher, 2003; 171).
To support their claims the media employs the use of socially accredited “experts” pronounce their diagnosis and solutions in fields which they might not be able apply their expertise to. For example, policemen who are quoted by the press that say youth crime is caused by playing violent videogames. These are merely hunches and prejudices with no claims to an expertise won in the rough and tumble research (Murdock, 1997; 76). In the articles I have examined these “experts” are psychologists, media regulators (i.e. Ofcom) and the police.
The attraction of these ‘many studies’ is not simply that they offer the illusion of strength in numbers, but they fit perfectly with the common-sense assumption (since it stands to reason, therefore it is correct). The research done is just used as evidence to prove what they already “know”. This is referred to as Banal Science (Murdock, 1997; 78), which fails to ask awkward questions, pursue other possible lines of enquiry and place the effects into social contexts which can only be accomplished through ethnography.
Becker (1963) claims that when public concern about a particular moral panic is generated, a Moral Enterprise is formed. This is ‘the creation of a new fragment of the moral constitution of society.’ In this stage, society changes itself for the object of moral panic and ways of coping are evolved or resorted to. This is the period where the Moral Entrepreneurs shine; politicians enforce legislations in attempts to stop the crimes from occurring. For videogames, rating systems are carefully scrutinized and revised while threats of heavy fines are enforced to videogame shops who sell games to people below the legal age.
It is imperative to highlight that so far the exchanges on ideas of moral panic, legislation and prohibition circulate only around the media, politicians and “experts”. If enough of these decide there is an issue and that action is required, a moral panic becomes possible (Critcher, 2003; 138). Society is not involved in this exchange. This means that a ‘discourse of the people is a discourse about the people, not by them’ and that their viewpoint is frequently assumed (Astroff & Nyberg, 1992).
The final stage is the panic disappears, submerges or deteriorates and becomes more visible. This means that eventually the object of moral panic (violent videogames) becomes largely ignored, bored by the recycling of the same issues (Downs, 1972; 38-50). This has not happened yet but I theorize that it will when the current generation of governments and media gives way to the future one.
In summary, the model of moral panics have shown how the media and the government enforce their ideology unto society though hegemony (one sided exchange of ideas) and agenda setting (creation of moral panics and folk devils) to justify the discrimination and profiling of a subset of society.
In the first part of my paper I have shown the flaws in the media effects theory especially when considering new forms of media such as videogames. I argue that it doesn’t address fully the videogame and its relation to issues of violence properly and that an ethnographic approach should be taken in order to find out the true effects of videogame violence on people.
I’ve also used this argument to debunk claims made by “experts” found in the moral panics model and have postulated that the current discrimination of videogames fits the model of moral panics.
Indeed, there is a storm of controversy surrounding videogames today. What we must do is to sift past the preconceived notions and accusations of new media in the past in order to fully understand and appreciate this new media horizon.
References:
Anderson, C. A., Carnagey, N. L., Flanagan, M., Benjamin, A. J., Eubanks, J., & Valentine, J. C. (2004). Violent video games: Specific effects of violent content on aggressive thoughts and behavior. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, volume 36, page 199-249.
Astroff, R.J & Nyberg, A.K (1992) Discursive hierarchies and the construction of crisis in the news: a case study, Discourse and Society, 3(1).
Bandura, A (1973) Aggression: A social learning analysis, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Becker, H (1997) [1963] Outsiders, Free Press
Berkowitz, L & Rawlings, E (1963) ‘Effects of film violence on inhibitions against subsequent aggression’ in Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology number 66
Buckingham, D (1997) ‘Electronic child abuse? Rethinking the media’s effects on children’, in M
Barker and J Petley (eds), Ill Effects: The Media/Violence Debate. London: Routledge
Cohen, S (1972) Folk Devils and Moral Panics: The creation of mods and rockers, New York: St Martin’s Press
Critcher, Chas (2003) Moral Panics and the media, Open University Press
Downs, A (1972) Up and down with ecology: the ‘issue-attention’ cycle, The Public Interest, 28
Erikson, Kai T. (2004) [1966]. Wayward Puritans: A Study in the Sociology of Deviance, Revised Edition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Geen, R.G (1976) Observing violence in the mass media: Implications of basic research in R.G
Green & E.C. O’Neal (Eds) Perspectives on aggression, San Diego: CA: Academic Press.
Goldstein, J.H (2001) ‘Does playing violent video games cause aggressive behavior?’ Playing by the Rules, Cultural Policy Center, University of Chicago, http://culturalpolicy.uchicago.edu/conf2001/papers/goldstein.html (viewed August 1st 2008)
Gunter, B (1998) The effects of video games on children, Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press.
Herman, L; Horwitz, J; Kent, S; Miller, S (2008) The history of video games; http://uk.gamespot.com/gamespot/features/video/hov/ (viewed July 25th 2008)
Mackay, C (1956) Extraordinary Delusions and the Madness of Crowds, London: George Harrap
Murdock, G (1997) Ill Effects: The media/violence debate; Martin Barker & Julian Petley (Eds) London and New York: Routledge
Murdock, G & McCron, R (1979) ‘The television and delinquency debate’, Screen Education, 30, Spring
Petley, J (1997) Ill Effects: The media/violence debate; Martin Barker & Julian Petley (Eds) London and New York: Routledge
Porter, G & Starcevic, V (2007) ‘Are violent video games harmful?’ in Australasian Psychiatry volume 15 number 5, Informa Healthcare.
Phillips, M (1994) ‘Mediocrity’s fight against violent truth’, Observer 17 April
Rutter J & Bryce J (2006) ‘Digital games and the violence debate’ in Understanding Digital Games, Sage Publications.
Rule, B.G & Ferguson, T.J (1986) ‘The effects of media on attitiudes, emotions and cognitions ‘ in Journal of Social Issues number 42.
Santayana, G (1905) The life of reason, Prometheus Books
Shultz, H (1949) Journal of Educational Society cited in ‘The Comic Book Villain, Dr. Fredric
Wertham, M.D.’ Jamie Coville (Ed) http://www.psu.edu/dept/inart10_110/inart10/cmbk4cca.html (viewed July 25th 2008)
Taylor, A (2003) Computer Games - Violence - Case Study: Mortal Kombat and Manhunt http://wiki.media-culture.org.au/index.php/Computer_Games_-_Violence_-_Case_Study:_Mortal_Kombat_and_Manhunt (viewed July 25th 2008)
Unsworth, G & Ward, T (2001) ‘Video games and aggressive behavior’ in Australian Psychologist volume 36 number 3, Taylor and Francis
Wertham, F (1954) Seduction of the innocent. Rinehart
Sunday, May 3, 2009
Representation
‘It is argued that in contemporary ‘postmodern’ societies our lived experience is increasingly mediated. Discuss this claim in relation to how space is represented in the Truman Show’
In studying systems of space, representation and postmodernism we first must define what each term means and then give examples (in this case scenes from the movie the Truman Show).
A postmodern society can be constructed in five ways according to Soja (2000). They are cultural integration (global), wired (networked), surveyed (watched), simulated (hyperreal) and material (consumer). The “real” world in the Truman show depicts all the elements of a postmodern society; the global city is shown by the diverse audience (different ethnics, age groups and countries like Japan) that watch the show while the production crew display an orderly and efficient system through their advanced technology (wireless headsets) which includes the multitudes of cameras in Seahaven that allow Truman to be watched at all times. The place of Seahaven is simulated therefore hyperreal and in-show advertisements are an indicator that consumption is thriving in the “real” world.
Holloway and Hubbard (2001, 145) define representation as the existence of a shared system of meaning which people draw upon in a variety of ways in order to communicate meanings. These are further categorized by Hall (1997) into three different ways: Mimetic, Intentional and Constructivist.
The mimetic way theorizes that the meaning lies within what one is representing. There are no underlying meanings, only what is depicted. This view does not further explore the author’s representation in depth and is therefore simplistic like the intentional way which relies on the language (i.e. words, pictures and sounds) ability of the author in order to communicate meaning as it does not address the different meanings that can be taken from one representation.
The constructivist way treats meanings as culturally constructed. A representation of something can mean different things to different types (class, sex, age, race) of people. This way stipulates that meaning is produced by communication rather than through it. Hence, the world of symbols is separated from the material/immaterial one to which they refer to. I will be focusing on this particular way in representations of the film.
Henri Lefebvre (1974) sees spaces as lived experiences. They are a product of how we think about and understand space and how we routinely use it. This becomes the conscious experience of space, how it is understood and made use of.
In the Truman show, we see two different kinds of space with contrasting comparisons: the simulated world of Truman and the “real” world where people watch Truman. Seahaven is a suburban area while the “real” world depicts people living in a city. The inhabitants of Seahaven have individual personalities that make them stand out from each other; the “real” world is a sea of endless faces. From the constructivist way we see that the representations of people and places, moral and immoral, desirable and disgusting, good and bad, affect the ways in which the places and people being represented are related to (Sibley, 1995). This includes the false perceptions created by people and places, in this case Seahaven.
The suburban town of Seahaven depicts the “traditional” homes of the 50s/60s. The architecture of the houses, the white picket fences, well trimmed lawn and conservative fashion styles give the image of nostalgia; an impression that everything seemed simple and decent in the past. The actors in the show are perpetually happy, offering virtually no signs of negative displays while a musical score plays in the background to convey Truman’s emotions. The meanings associated with such a depiction are that such spaces were serene, economically stable and positive examples of morality, in short, the perfect place to live. These “traditional” homes give viewers the impression and understanding that places and values such as these once existed in the past. When Truman goes about his daily routine (talking to the mirror, greeting the neighbors) the viewers see him using the different spaces in Seahaven and therefore they consciously experience the place (and time) of Seahaven through the eyes of Truman.
Foucault (1981) said that knowledge is produced through discourse; a general way of talking about, thinking about, or representing something. Discourse is specific to particular times and spaces and it is related to practice (what people actually do). In the Truman show the audience talk about Truman as if they know what he is experiencing. By acknowledging the simulated space and timeline of Seahaven (which is imbued with certain moral values) they negotiate the triumphs and downfalls of Truman based on their perceived understanding of the time period and how Truman uses his spaces (i.e. The docks with his best friend or the phobia of large bodies of water).
Mingay (1989) talks about the rural idyll: A myth that depicts rural landscapes as timeless. There is emphasis on traditional family/community values, harmonious relations between nature and culture, the absence of social problems and fostering of good physical, spiritual and moral health. Filmmakers tend to show such spaces in this form/time because of selective nostalgia, ignoring that places in that time had their share of problems (i.e. racism).
While in the “real” world, the city depicted as the antithesis of Truman’s world. It is dystopian compared to Seahavens utopia. Human interaction is minimal and the only conversations the people have are about the show; how they feel about it, the theories of Truman’s character, their personal video collection of the show and so on. There is no eye contact with each other, everyone is staring at only one direction and that’s towards the television. There is no depiction of an open sky; people are holed up in rooms (i.e. pubs, homes, parking lots) and it gives a feeling of claustrophobia (a symbol of being a prisoner of television perhaps). There is no soundtrack playing in the background, only static noise. The “real” world is thus depicted as impersonal and its people voyeuristic. Their lives are centered around the Truman show. This might represent the need for the audience to escape from their seemingly desolate lives, to have hope that there is something good out there in a bad world. This is how our contemporary ‘postmodern’ society is depicted, our lives being mediated by a screen and having our communication based on the content that is displayed.
References:
Foucault, Michel (1981) The History of Sexuality, Harmondsworth, Penguin
Hall, Stuart (1997) The work of representation in Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices, London Sage
Holloway, Lewis & Phil Hubbard (2001) People and Place: the extraordinary geographies of everyday life, Pearson Education
Lefebvre, Henri (1974) La production de l’espace (The Production of Space), Wiley-Blackwell
Mingay, Gordon (1989) The Rural Idyll, London, Routledge
Sibley, David (1995) Geographies of Exclusion. Society and Difference in the West, Routledge
Soja, Edward (2000) Postmetropolis: Critical Studies of Cities and Regions, Oxford
In studying systems of space, representation and postmodernism we first must define what each term means and then give examples (in this case scenes from the movie the Truman Show).
A postmodern society can be constructed in five ways according to Soja (2000). They are cultural integration (global), wired (networked), surveyed (watched), simulated (hyperreal) and material (consumer). The “real” world in the Truman show depicts all the elements of a postmodern society; the global city is shown by the diverse audience (different ethnics, age groups and countries like Japan) that watch the show while the production crew display an orderly and efficient system through their advanced technology (wireless headsets) which includes the multitudes of cameras in Seahaven that allow Truman to be watched at all times. The place of Seahaven is simulated therefore hyperreal and in-show advertisements are an indicator that consumption is thriving in the “real” world.
Holloway and Hubbard (2001, 145) define representation as the existence of a shared system of meaning which people draw upon in a variety of ways in order to communicate meanings. These are further categorized by Hall (1997) into three different ways: Mimetic, Intentional and Constructivist.
The mimetic way theorizes that the meaning lies within what one is representing. There are no underlying meanings, only what is depicted. This view does not further explore the author’s representation in depth and is therefore simplistic like the intentional way which relies on the language (i.e. words, pictures and sounds) ability of the author in order to communicate meaning as it does not address the different meanings that can be taken from one representation.
The constructivist way treats meanings as culturally constructed. A representation of something can mean different things to different types (class, sex, age, race) of people. This way stipulates that meaning is produced by communication rather than through it. Hence, the world of symbols is separated from the material/immaterial one to which they refer to. I will be focusing on this particular way in representations of the film.
Henri Lefebvre (1974) sees spaces as lived experiences. They are a product of how we think about and understand space and how we routinely use it. This becomes the conscious experience of space, how it is understood and made use of.
In the Truman show, we see two different kinds of space with contrasting comparisons: the simulated world of Truman and the “real” world where people watch Truman. Seahaven is a suburban area while the “real” world depicts people living in a city. The inhabitants of Seahaven have individual personalities that make them stand out from each other; the “real” world is a sea of endless faces. From the constructivist way we see that the representations of people and places, moral and immoral, desirable and disgusting, good and bad, affect the ways in which the places and people being represented are related to (Sibley, 1995). This includes the false perceptions created by people and places, in this case Seahaven.
The suburban town of Seahaven depicts the “traditional” homes of the 50s/60s. The architecture of the houses, the white picket fences, well trimmed lawn and conservative fashion styles give the image of nostalgia; an impression that everything seemed simple and decent in the past. The actors in the show are perpetually happy, offering virtually no signs of negative displays while a musical score plays in the background to convey Truman’s emotions. The meanings associated with such a depiction are that such spaces were serene, economically stable and positive examples of morality, in short, the perfect place to live. These “traditional” homes give viewers the impression and understanding that places and values such as these once existed in the past. When Truman goes about his daily routine (talking to the mirror, greeting the neighbors) the viewers see him using the different spaces in Seahaven and therefore they consciously experience the place (and time) of Seahaven through the eyes of Truman.
Foucault (1981) said that knowledge is produced through discourse; a general way of talking about, thinking about, or representing something. Discourse is specific to particular times and spaces and it is related to practice (what people actually do). In the Truman show the audience talk about Truman as if they know what he is experiencing. By acknowledging the simulated space and timeline of Seahaven (which is imbued with certain moral values) they negotiate the triumphs and downfalls of Truman based on their perceived understanding of the time period and how Truman uses his spaces (i.e. The docks with his best friend or the phobia of large bodies of water).
Mingay (1989) talks about the rural idyll: A myth that depicts rural landscapes as timeless. There is emphasis on traditional family/community values, harmonious relations between nature and culture, the absence of social problems and fostering of good physical, spiritual and moral health. Filmmakers tend to show such spaces in this form/time because of selective nostalgia, ignoring that places in that time had their share of problems (i.e. racism).
While in the “real” world, the city depicted as the antithesis of Truman’s world. It is dystopian compared to Seahavens utopia. Human interaction is minimal and the only conversations the people have are about the show; how they feel about it, the theories of Truman’s character, their personal video collection of the show and so on. There is no eye contact with each other, everyone is staring at only one direction and that’s towards the television. There is no depiction of an open sky; people are holed up in rooms (i.e. pubs, homes, parking lots) and it gives a feeling of claustrophobia (a symbol of being a prisoner of television perhaps). There is no soundtrack playing in the background, only static noise. The “real” world is thus depicted as impersonal and its people voyeuristic. Their lives are centered around the Truman show. This might represent the need for the audience to escape from their seemingly desolate lives, to have hope that there is something good out there in a bad world. This is how our contemporary ‘postmodern’ society is depicted, our lives being mediated by a screen and having our communication based on the content that is displayed.
References:
Foucault, Michel (1981) The History of Sexuality, Harmondsworth, Penguin
Hall, Stuart (1997) The work of representation in Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices, London Sage
Holloway, Lewis & Phil Hubbard (2001) People and Place: the extraordinary geographies of everyday life, Pearson Education
Lefebvre, Henri (1974) La production de l’espace (The Production of Space), Wiley-Blackwell
Mingay, Gordon (1989) The Rural Idyll, London, Routledge
Sibley, David (1995) Geographies of Exclusion. Society and Difference in the West, Routledge
Soja, Edward (2000) Postmetropolis: Critical Studies of Cities and Regions, Oxford
Professional Practice and Ethics
Critically discuss the different ethical issues that producers of reality TV need to consider when presenting the attitudes and behavior of real people as entertainment for the viewing public using the Potter Box model to highlight ethical concerns.
Case Study: Big Brother UK (2008)
Ethics is a philosophy that centers on correct conduct and good works towards fellow men. It can be traced as far back as the Greek philosopher Socrates who encouraged his fellow man to look past their concerns of things material and to concentrate on the condition of man. Known as the Socratic method or method of '"elenchus," Socrates gave a way of discussing moral concepts through a line of questioning that pertained to humanity such as Justice and Goodness. (Vlastos, 1983; 27-58).
This concern for the well being of man is evident in our everyday lives and more so when issues of morality and decency are discussed in the media. The advent of reality shows such as Survivor in the 90s has tapped into a human condition that would have seemed abhorrent mere decades ago: voyeurism. We seem more preoccupied with what the actors and actresses do in real life than the people they play on screen sometimes and why not? It is always more entertaining to see the multi-faceted and intricate lives of people in their triumphs and more so their falls. Reality television satisfies that urge to peep and though it has garnered millions of dollars of revenue though advertising, product placement and the like there are many ethical issues which have yet to be addressed. As Hill (2005; 108) has said; “the ethics of reality TV is significant to our understanding of the production, content and reception of genre as a whole.” After all these are not animals performing in a caged box we call television for the lewd enjoyment of viewers. These are people too.
I will use a case study of the UK version of Big Brother and, by highlighting certain events, apply the Potter box model, highlight the ethical concerns of presenting the attitudes and behavior of real people as entertainment for the viewing public.
The first part is the definition and the facts. In this part we look at the facts of the Big Brother show without making any judgments. We understand that this is a reality show where people from different backgrounds, sexuality, race, creed and gender are kept in an enclosed area for a length of time. We acknowledge that the producers of the show determine the choice of housemates and they are different in order to give an impression of diversity to the public. We also know that they have gone through an extensive selection process (being interviewed more than twice) before entering the Big Brother compound which means that they are there of their own free will and that they have been informed about the situation they will be in.
An ethical problem here is the amount of preparation and sufficient information given to the participants by the producers. Since the show is mostly constructed (by the producers who determine the 40 minutes viewers get to watch out of a whole day), viewers get to only see the glamorous side of being in Big Brother and may not be fully aware of the consequences to being held in a small space for an extended amount of time. A good example is when Lisa snapped and broke the handle of the fire door on day 58 and walked out. She reached as far as the security office before being escorted back into the house willingly. She later said that leaving the house felt good because she needed the feeling of freedom.
We realize that the participants have no privacy and are perpetually monitored. There are cameras all around the house, including the toilets, and that they have to wear microphones at all times. The camera in the toilet poses a significant ethical issue as participants who wish to use them will need their privacy to do so and the producers have to be quick to turn off the cameras while they do their business and to turn it back on if housemates wish to use it for other purposes (for example, gossiping).
Since the housemates are kept in an enclosed area the events (like tasks) that happen in the house are constructed, which means that these things do not usually take place in normative society. These tasks usually come with different cultural themes (for example Chinese, Roman, Japanese) and the producers should be aware of not offending minority cultures that watch the show by stereotyping (for example Japanese Geisha outfits during the marathon karaoke session might imply that only the Japanese like to karaoke).
The second part of the Potter box is values. Here we state and compare the merits of different values to acknowledge influences on decision-making. By referring to the specific concerns of the individuals involved, it allows us to indentify differences in perspectives. We first judge it according to Aesthetic Values. The majority of the participants in the house are pleasing to the eye. Most of them have fit bodies and are seen constantly exercising in the house while others (especially the females) are thin. These fit the mold of the “perfect” body which makes viewers want to keep watching. The producers also have to consider that minorities might be watching the show and therefore they introduce a small amount of housemates that closely represent them. For example Kathreya would represent Asians while Dennis represents the gay community. This is also perilous as they might be interpreted as stereotyping so producers would give the housemates tasks which encourage teamwork and thereby a perception of harmonious living between everyone is created.
The next value judged is Professional Values. We judge the way the show is created and the structure in which they adhere to. Such things like the rules, regulations and conduct book that the housemates have to follow in order to ensure their safety. Examples of these rules are no intimidating behavior towards another housemate and no vandalizing of the Big Brother house. Producers also have to have a more in depth version of the rules to cater to any situations that might arise from the house such as bullying by Alexandra. Besides the rules producers should have a list of protocols that address different the situations that will happen in the house. These include the protection of housemates who have committed serious offences from the public when they are evicted (like in Alexandra’s and Dennis’s case).
The next values we look at are Logical Values. These are judged on the consistent efforts and competence of the producers. There have been nine seasons of Big Brother in the UK and we should expect the evolution and modification of rules in subsequent seasons that reflect on previous Big Brother incidents as well as catering to the particular culture here. An example is 2007s Celebrity Big Brother racism and bullying incident which might lead producers to having a firmer stand on bullying in future seasons.
Moral Values are the grey area when it comes to reality shows. Besides the no intimidation or abuse (physically or emotionally) policy everything else seems to be allowed, in fact sometimes encouraged. Gossiping, lying, stealing is seen as acceptable behavior in the house. An example would be Sylvia who was seen constantly gossiping with her clique and stashing away food she stole. Unfortunately this kind of behavior is what makes it exciting to watch Big Brother and therefore is seen as no ethical consequence to the producers.
The next part of the Potter box model is principals. Here ethical philosophies or modes of ethical reasoning that may be applicable to the situation are used to understand the situation. The philosophy I will use is Immanuel Kant’s Categorical Imperative (1785, 2002), which derives from the concept of duty; that the ends never justify the means.
The artificially constructed world in the Big Brother house is govern by the aforementioned rules, regulations and conduct. Like in the real world which is run by laws, housemates are bound by these rules. As such the producers should always be strict in enforcing the laws of the house. Clear-cut cases such as Alexandra’s bullying and Dennis spitting on Mohamed should be dealt with quickly and by the book. There are certain ethical issues however that concerns what constitutes as bullying. When Rex smudged Jennifer’s portrait of Stuart on day 23 it could have been perceived as malicious intent towards her. Producers could have addressed the situation quickly by calling the both of them into the Dairy Room to discuss but instead the situation was made worse when everyone got involved, escalating the problem which eventually led to the premature eviction of Dennis.
Another philosophy that would address ethical concerns is John Rawl’s Veil of Ignorance (1971, 2005), which asks producers to place themselves in the position of the people. By putting themselves in the housemates’ shoes they empathize with them which leads to a better understanding of the situations thereby procuring a quicker response to the situation. As exampled above the situation of Jennifer’s portrait could have been quelled faster should the producers reacted immediately.
The fourth part of the Potter box model is loyalties. Producers should take into account the groups of people who are affected by Big Brother and ask who their allegiances lie with. These groups are all connected to each other; the participants, the advertisers, the public, the network station, the communications regulator. The group that would have the most impact on the show would be the public as proven with the Alexandra bullying case. Over 350 complaints were made to UK communications regulator Ofcom (Office of Communications) by viewers after Channel 4 broadcast an episode in which housemate Alexandra yelled abuse at a number of her fellow contestants (Brand Republic, Internet). Channel 4 itself received numerous complaints as well. This prompted the producers of the show to repeatedly warn Alexandra about her conduct in the Big Brother House. Producers would also take into consideration the network station’s (Channel 4) image by considering implications that they were lenient to Alexandra’s behavior. The producers would have then called Alexandra to the Dairy Room and remind her of the list of rules and regulations pertaining to the conduct in the Big Brother house. This not only informs the housemate but informs the viewers of the show that the network station has protocol when dealing with all sorts of issues as well, ensuring them that Channel 4 is well prepared and organized. Another point to note is that producers would also ask Channel 4 for a later time slot in their line of programming after the watershed to allow cussing and certain scenes of nudity (for example Rebecca’s breast flashing).
Because of such incidents that arouse public anger producers should also take into account the volatility of the advertisers of the show especially its main sponsor Virgin Mobile. The people who were outraged by Alexandra’s behavior would not only question why Channel 4 would allow such bullying to take place but also associate its sponsors who might be perceived to condone the network’s station choices in regards to handling the situation.
The next allegiances would involve the participants in Big Brother. Alexandra’s attitude towards fellow housemates was intimidating and her outbursts at almost everyone were tantamount to bullying. The producers of the show had the ethical consideration to ensure that no housemate would be hurt, emotionally or physically by Alexandra’s abuse, repeatedly warning her in the Dairy Room. The climax of the bullying was on Day 13 when Alexandra, talking to Darnell, made highly intimidatory remarks regarding seeking payback for offenses committed in the house using gang jargon. This posed a serious threat to housemates and the producers removed her from the house the next day in order to prevent further aggravation. Other situations that posed ethical dilemmas were the broadcast of Mohamed’s rants in the Dairy Room to the whole house. Due to a “technical fault” Mohamed’s comments on his views of Alexandra were broadcasted to the whole house which meant that Alex could hear what he said. The Dairy Room is supposed to be a place where housemates could confide their experiences in Big Brother but because of the “glitch” Mohamed’s private views were heard and he would then be in danger of being nominated by the person he offended as well as not being able to trust his privacy being respected.
To conclude, the producers of Big Brother should consider the many ethical dilemmas posed in creating a reality television show such as this which deals with the physical and mental well being of its participants. Aside from its entertainment value the should realize that the housemates future will be hugely affected by their participation in the show and that the producers should be able to give full disclosure before allowing them to enter the Big Brother house.
References:
Brand Republic (2008) http://www.brandrepublic.com/News/816378/Pressure-C4-remove-bullying-Big-Brother-housemate/ (viewed 1st August 2008)
Hill, Annette (2005) Reality TV: Audiences and Popular Factual Television, Routledge
Kant, Immanuel (1785, 2002) Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals, Yale University Press
Rawls, John (2005) A Theory of Justice, Universal Law Publishing Co Ltd
Vlastos, Gregory (1983) ‘The Socratic Elenchus’, in Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy 1: 27–58
Case Study: Big Brother UK (2008)
Ethics is a philosophy that centers on correct conduct and good works towards fellow men. It can be traced as far back as the Greek philosopher Socrates who encouraged his fellow man to look past their concerns of things material and to concentrate on the condition of man. Known as the Socratic method or method of '"elenchus," Socrates gave a way of discussing moral concepts through a line of questioning that pertained to humanity such as Justice and Goodness. (Vlastos, 1983; 27-58).
This concern for the well being of man is evident in our everyday lives and more so when issues of morality and decency are discussed in the media. The advent of reality shows such as Survivor in the 90s has tapped into a human condition that would have seemed abhorrent mere decades ago: voyeurism. We seem more preoccupied with what the actors and actresses do in real life than the people they play on screen sometimes and why not? It is always more entertaining to see the multi-faceted and intricate lives of people in their triumphs and more so their falls. Reality television satisfies that urge to peep and though it has garnered millions of dollars of revenue though advertising, product placement and the like there are many ethical issues which have yet to be addressed. As Hill (2005; 108) has said; “the ethics of reality TV is significant to our understanding of the production, content and reception of genre as a whole.” After all these are not animals performing in a caged box we call television for the lewd enjoyment of viewers. These are people too.
I will use a case study of the UK version of Big Brother and, by highlighting certain events, apply the Potter box model, highlight the ethical concerns of presenting the attitudes and behavior of real people as entertainment for the viewing public.
The first part is the definition and the facts. In this part we look at the facts of the Big Brother show without making any judgments. We understand that this is a reality show where people from different backgrounds, sexuality, race, creed and gender are kept in an enclosed area for a length of time. We acknowledge that the producers of the show determine the choice of housemates and they are different in order to give an impression of diversity to the public. We also know that they have gone through an extensive selection process (being interviewed more than twice) before entering the Big Brother compound which means that they are there of their own free will and that they have been informed about the situation they will be in.
An ethical problem here is the amount of preparation and sufficient information given to the participants by the producers. Since the show is mostly constructed (by the producers who determine the 40 minutes viewers get to watch out of a whole day), viewers get to only see the glamorous side of being in Big Brother and may not be fully aware of the consequences to being held in a small space for an extended amount of time. A good example is when Lisa snapped and broke the handle of the fire door on day 58 and walked out. She reached as far as the security office before being escorted back into the house willingly. She later said that leaving the house felt good because she needed the feeling of freedom.
We realize that the participants have no privacy and are perpetually monitored. There are cameras all around the house, including the toilets, and that they have to wear microphones at all times. The camera in the toilet poses a significant ethical issue as participants who wish to use them will need their privacy to do so and the producers have to be quick to turn off the cameras while they do their business and to turn it back on if housemates wish to use it for other purposes (for example, gossiping).
Since the housemates are kept in an enclosed area the events (like tasks) that happen in the house are constructed, which means that these things do not usually take place in normative society. These tasks usually come with different cultural themes (for example Chinese, Roman, Japanese) and the producers should be aware of not offending minority cultures that watch the show by stereotyping (for example Japanese Geisha outfits during the marathon karaoke session might imply that only the Japanese like to karaoke).
The second part of the Potter box is values. Here we state and compare the merits of different values to acknowledge influences on decision-making. By referring to the specific concerns of the individuals involved, it allows us to indentify differences in perspectives. We first judge it according to Aesthetic Values. The majority of the participants in the house are pleasing to the eye. Most of them have fit bodies and are seen constantly exercising in the house while others (especially the females) are thin. These fit the mold of the “perfect” body which makes viewers want to keep watching. The producers also have to consider that minorities might be watching the show and therefore they introduce a small amount of housemates that closely represent them. For example Kathreya would represent Asians while Dennis represents the gay community. This is also perilous as they might be interpreted as stereotyping so producers would give the housemates tasks which encourage teamwork and thereby a perception of harmonious living between everyone is created.
The next value judged is Professional Values. We judge the way the show is created and the structure in which they adhere to. Such things like the rules, regulations and conduct book that the housemates have to follow in order to ensure their safety. Examples of these rules are no intimidating behavior towards another housemate and no vandalizing of the Big Brother house. Producers also have to have a more in depth version of the rules to cater to any situations that might arise from the house such as bullying by Alexandra. Besides the rules producers should have a list of protocols that address different the situations that will happen in the house. These include the protection of housemates who have committed serious offences from the public when they are evicted (like in Alexandra’s and Dennis’s case).
The next values we look at are Logical Values. These are judged on the consistent efforts and competence of the producers. There have been nine seasons of Big Brother in the UK and we should expect the evolution and modification of rules in subsequent seasons that reflect on previous Big Brother incidents as well as catering to the particular culture here. An example is 2007s Celebrity Big Brother racism and bullying incident which might lead producers to having a firmer stand on bullying in future seasons.
Moral Values are the grey area when it comes to reality shows. Besides the no intimidation or abuse (physically or emotionally) policy everything else seems to be allowed, in fact sometimes encouraged. Gossiping, lying, stealing is seen as acceptable behavior in the house. An example would be Sylvia who was seen constantly gossiping with her clique and stashing away food she stole. Unfortunately this kind of behavior is what makes it exciting to watch Big Brother and therefore is seen as no ethical consequence to the producers.
The next part of the Potter box model is principals. Here ethical philosophies or modes of ethical reasoning that may be applicable to the situation are used to understand the situation. The philosophy I will use is Immanuel Kant’s Categorical Imperative (1785, 2002), which derives from the concept of duty; that the ends never justify the means.
The artificially constructed world in the Big Brother house is govern by the aforementioned rules, regulations and conduct. Like in the real world which is run by laws, housemates are bound by these rules. As such the producers should always be strict in enforcing the laws of the house. Clear-cut cases such as Alexandra’s bullying and Dennis spitting on Mohamed should be dealt with quickly and by the book. There are certain ethical issues however that concerns what constitutes as bullying. When Rex smudged Jennifer’s portrait of Stuart on day 23 it could have been perceived as malicious intent towards her. Producers could have addressed the situation quickly by calling the both of them into the Dairy Room to discuss but instead the situation was made worse when everyone got involved, escalating the problem which eventually led to the premature eviction of Dennis.
Another philosophy that would address ethical concerns is John Rawl’s Veil of Ignorance (1971, 2005), which asks producers to place themselves in the position of the people. By putting themselves in the housemates’ shoes they empathize with them which leads to a better understanding of the situations thereby procuring a quicker response to the situation. As exampled above the situation of Jennifer’s portrait could have been quelled faster should the producers reacted immediately.
The fourth part of the Potter box model is loyalties. Producers should take into account the groups of people who are affected by Big Brother and ask who their allegiances lie with. These groups are all connected to each other; the participants, the advertisers, the public, the network station, the communications regulator. The group that would have the most impact on the show would be the public as proven with the Alexandra bullying case. Over 350 complaints were made to UK communications regulator Ofcom (Office of Communications) by viewers after Channel 4 broadcast an episode in which housemate Alexandra yelled abuse at a number of her fellow contestants (Brand Republic, Internet). Channel 4 itself received numerous complaints as well. This prompted the producers of the show to repeatedly warn Alexandra about her conduct in the Big Brother House. Producers would also take into consideration the network station’s (Channel 4) image by considering implications that they were lenient to Alexandra’s behavior. The producers would have then called Alexandra to the Dairy Room and remind her of the list of rules and regulations pertaining to the conduct in the Big Brother house. This not only informs the housemate but informs the viewers of the show that the network station has protocol when dealing with all sorts of issues as well, ensuring them that Channel 4 is well prepared and organized. Another point to note is that producers would also ask Channel 4 for a later time slot in their line of programming after the watershed to allow cussing and certain scenes of nudity (for example Rebecca’s breast flashing).
Because of such incidents that arouse public anger producers should also take into account the volatility of the advertisers of the show especially its main sponsor Virgin Mobile. The people who were outraged by Alexandra’s behavior would not only question why Channel 4 would allow such bullying to take place but also associate its sponsors who might be perceived to condone the network’s station choices in regards to handling the situation.
The next allegiances would involve the participants in Big Brother. Alexandra’s attitude towards fellow housemates was intimidating and her outbursts at almost everyone were tantamount to bullying. The producers of the show had the ethical consideration to ensure that no housemate would be hurt, emotionally or physically by Alexandra’s abuse, repeatedly warning her in the Dairy Room. The climax of the bullying was on Day 13 when Alexandra, talking to Darnell, made highly intimidatory remarks regarding seeking payback for offenses committed in the house using gang jargon. This posed a serious threat to housemates and the producers removed her from the house the next day in order to prevent further aggravation. Other situations that posed ethical dilemmas were the broadcast of Mohamed’s rants in the Dairy Room to the whole house. Due to a “technical fault” Mohamed’s comments on his views of Alexandra were broadcasted to the whole house which meant that Alex could hear what he said. The Dairy Room is supposed to be a place where housemates could confide their experiences in Big Brother but because of the “glitch” Mohamed’s private views were heard and he would then be in danger of being nominated by the person he offended as well as not being able to trust his privacy being respected.
To conclude, the producers of Big Brother should consider the many ethical dilemmas posed in creating a reality television show such as this which deals with the physical and mental well being of its participants. Aside from its entertainment value the should realize that the housemates future will be hugely affected by their participation in the show and that the producers should be able to give full disclosure before allowing them to enter the Big Brother house.
References:
Brand Republic (2008) http://www.brandrepublic.com/News/816378/Pressure-C4-remove-bullying-Big-Brother-housemate/ (viewed 1st August 2008)
Hill, Annette (2005) Reality TV: Audiences and Popular Factual Television, Routledge
Kant, Immanuel (1785, 2002) Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals, Yale University Press
Rawls, John (2005) A Theory of Justice, Universal Law Publishing Co Ltd
Vlastos, Gregory (1983) ‘The Socratic Elenchus’, in Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy 1: 27–58
Privacy and Ethics
Explain the ethical issues Berry (2004) discussed in his article
Privacy. It is the right entitled to any living homo sapien. Like most animals we are social creatures, and yet there are times where we need personal space where we can do the things without the scrutiny of the public and even friends and family. The Internet might be considered by many as a public sphere, but should its content and text be wholly public?
The assumption that the Internet is “public property” would stem from its original function: military communication (Lester, 2001, pg 27-39). A domain was created where computers were connected to each other to speed up the flow of information. By this logic anyone who posts content on the Internet is to have willingly known that that content could be viewed by anyone.
Pittenger (2003, pg 49) likened it to scolding his children or kissing his wife in public, not being able to control what other people might be able to see and risk drawing attention. Though he then later gave another analogy, whispering to his wife in a public place meant that he did want to share information in a public place, but only to his wife. This meant that there was an expected form of privacy in public.
This explains Berry’s (2004, pg 324) dilemma when he explained that the assumption of the Internet being public contributes to the problem of Internet research, as terms such as “public and private” are difficult to apply to the online world as websites have different degrees of privacy.
What about the subjects then? Berry cites the Golden rule (Thomas, 1996, pg 107-117) used in general research as a base for arguing ethics in Internet research. They are to never deceive subjects, never knowingly put subjects at risk and maximize public and private good while minimizing harm. There are two schools of thought in this matter however: The deontological (a philosophy based on following the prescribed rules of ethical research) and the consequentialist (getting results by any means necessary for the social good).
Though one might be quick to subscribe to the consequentialists “ends justify the means” motto Pittenger (2003, pg 56) explains the folly of such an uncouth method. He argues that firstly, it violates the integrity of the subject and research based on the APAs (internet, 2001) Code of Conduct and secondly; subjects may unwillingly make dangerous statements that obligates the researcher to report to the relevant authorities, violating the principal of the Golden rule of minimizing harm to participants.
Such an example is given in Humphrey’s “tearoom” research in the 1970s where he observed males engaging in homosexual activity in public restrooms before following them back and posing as a health researcher to ascertain more information. What may seem like “situation ethics” in the name of research to Humphreys might end up as felony charges of gross misconduct in a public place, stalking and posing as a representative of state to others.
So how does one conduct ethical online research then? To address the problem of privacy in a public place Pittenger (2003, pg 51) theorized that in websites such as forums “It seems reasonable to presume the level of expected privacy increases with the mechanisms used to screen participants of various virtual communities” and it “creates prima facie evidence for the presumption of expected privacy”.
But what is the boundary drawn when it comes to privacy? If a researcher signs up for a forum and just hovers there to observe not participating, does it make it acceptable behavior? This from virtual voyeurism is called Lurking, and is found by many forum members as irritable. Having virtual eyes reading everything you post on the forum- especially if it is a support group- can be intimidating and defeat the purpose of having such groups altogether. A seemingly simple solution of asking permission could be used to remedy this problem but instead causes more sub-problems.
Who do I seek permission from? All the members or just the moderator? If I cite a post from a member should he be informed first or do I just go ahead and use it since it applies to standard copyright restrictions and fair rights?
Pittenger (2003, pg 53) suggests some steps to ensure ethically responsible research:
Seek and respect the rules of the virtual community. Check the rules of the community you are researching and the guidelines regarding the privacy of communication. Also make it fully clear about who you are and what you are doing.
From personal experience there is always a thread that lists the rules of the community as well as moderators you can contact to ask for the forum’s policies. When you sign up for membership there is usually a profile editor and you can state your purpose and details clearly on the signature box so that everybody can see it when you post.
The second step is the editing of data reported. The method used to present the data collected could be shown in a way that doesn’t compromise the subject’s nor the forum’s identity. For instance, if a survey needs to be conducted forums usually have an application that takes polls and the like without revealing the members name to anyone else in the forum. The data collected can then be displayed as a thread to the whole community. This step ensures not only full disclosure of the research to the members of the forum so they too can reflect on the issues you pose, but also the simplicity of the poll in the forum ensures maximum participation of its members.
The next step is the use of multiple groups. Being a member of multiple forums with the same purpose will not only aid in protecting the subjects anonymity, but also yield a more unbiased and concise collection of data.
Such steps do address Berry’s issues of privacy and permission in an online community as well as foster positive researcher-subject rapport while protecting the integrity of the forum and its participants.
The next ethical issue Berry discussed was the Free/Libre and Open Source movement (FLOSS) and the issues it raises in regards to publication and use of the software, its alteration and licensing. He likened it to Internet research and explained the problem of subjects reacting differently when being researched (thereby giving consequentialists justification to use spying) as well as the resistance of the people in charge when information is published to the public in order to protect the interests of the community and the higher powers associated it them (Berry likens it to the wealthy business people in charge of FLOSS).
Berry suggests taking the ethics of care approach into such a problem. By not subscribing to the consequentialist and deontological positions he makes a plea to the researcher’s sense of responsive mutuality for his subjects rather than just protecting them out of duty. I believe an appeal such as this might seem a tad too optimistic. It is like leaving an iphone on the street and hoping that people would use their sense of honesty to return it; it is far too tempting to be dishonest. Moreover, fellow scholars and the public would question the publication of the results of the research and its methodologies and I fear that telling them the subjects had to rely on faith in the researcher’s sense of decency might not carry as much weight as a detailed list of protections.
As Pittenger (2003, pg 59) offers in his work that many of the ethical problems, which appear during Internet research, can be overcome by examining reactions to past research and by refining the definitions of concepts used in ethical discussions. Also, researchers could learn from detailed accounts of past methodological practices for the collection and the presentation of data in online research. This has an added bonus of the public reading about such concerns and ethical justifications concerning more controversial research and thereby causing them to understand the need for such approaches which in turn allow for a more willing participation in future studies.
In summary, the problems that Berry addressed in his study have been given possible solutions: In defining the Internet as a public or private place we understand that there can be privacy in a public place by virtue of the level of accessibility though usernames, passwords and the like. The justifications of consequentialist can be easily addressed by the questions of violating the integrity of the subject and having to report instigated remarks. The problem of Lurking and the ways to approach an online forum for research through the three steps is also offered a solution as well as addressing the difficulty encountered with unwilling participants and the hesitance of the publication of results to the public have been answered.
The Internet is still considered as new media to the general populace and it is newer ground for researchers to conduct anthropological research on the various communities available. Though it might seem a tad daunting to properly classify methods to approach this new territory we should take a leaf from what humanity has done for centuries when exploring new ground: Venture, experiment, make mistakes, then learn from them.
References:
Lester, T. (2001, March). The reinvention of piracy. The Atlantic Monthly.
Pettinger, D. (2003, Jan). Internet Research: An Opportunity to Revisit Classic Ethical Problems in Behavioral Research. Ethics and Behavior. Routledge.
Berry, D. (2004). Internet Research: Privacy, ethics and alienation: an open source approach. Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
Thomas, J. (1996) When cyber-research goes awry: the ethics of the Rimm ‘cyberporn’ study. Information Society: Volume 12 Number 2.
APA: Code of Conduct. http://www.apa.org/ethics/code2002.html#principle_b. viewed June 1st 2008.
Privacy. It is the right entitled to any living homo sapien. Like most animals we are social creatures, and yet there are times where we need personal space where we can do the things without the scrutiny of the public and even friends and family. The Internet might be considered by many as a public sphere, but should its content and text be wholly public?
The assumption that the Internet is “public property” would stem from its original function: military communication (Lester, 2001, pg 27-39). A domain was created where computers were connected to each other to speed up the flow of information. By this logic anyone who posts content on the Internet is to have willingly known that that content could be viewed by anyone.
Pittenger (2003, pg 49) likened it to scolding his children or kissing his wife in public, not being able to control what other people might be able to see and risk drawing attention. Though he then later gave another analogy, whispering to his wife in a public place meant that he did want to share information in a public place, but only to his wife. This meant that there was an expected form of privacy in public.
This explains Berry’s (2004, pg 324) dilemma when he explained that the assumption of the Internet being public contributes to the problem of Internet research, as terms such as “public and private” are difficult to apply to the online world as websites have different degrees of privacy.
What about the subjects then? Berry cites the Golden rule (Thomas, 1996, pg 107-117) used in general research as a base for arguing ethics in Internet research. They are to never deceive subjects, never knowingly put subjects at risk and maximize public and private good while minimizing harm. There are two schools of thought in this matter however: The deontological (a philosophy based on following the prescribed rules of ethical research) and the consequentialist (getting results by any means necessary for the social good).
Though one might be quick to subscribe to the consequentialists “ends justify the means” motto Pittenger (2003, pg 56) explains the folly of such an uncouth method. He argues that firstly, it violates the integrity of the subject and research based on the APAs (internet, 2001) Code of Conduct and secondly; subjects may unwillingly make dangerous statements that obligates the researcher to report to the relevant authorities, violating the principal of the Golden rule of minimizing harm to participants.
Such an example is given in Humphrey’s “tearoom” research in the 1970s where he observed males engaging in homosexual activity in public restrooms before following them back and posing as a health researcher to ascertain more information. What may seem like “situation ethics” in the name of research to Humphreys might end up as felony charges of gross misconduct in a public place, stalking and posing as a representative of state to others.
So how does one conduct ethical online research then? To address the problem of privacy in a public place Pittenger (2003, pg 51) theorized that in websites such as forums “It seems reasonable to presume the level of expected privacy increases with the mechanisms used to screen participants of various virtual communities” and it “creates prima facie evidence for the presumption of expected privacy”.
But what is the boundary drawn when it comes to privacy? If a researcher signs up for a forum and just hovers there to observe not participating, does it make it acceptable behavior? This from virtual voyeurism is called Lurking, and is found by many forum members as irritable. Having virtual eyes reading everything you post on the forum- especially if it is a support group- can be intimidating and defeat the purpose of having such groups altogether. A seemingly simple solution of asking permission could be used to remedy this problem but instead causes more sub-problems.
Who do I seek permission from? All the members or just the moderator? If I cite a post from a member should he be informed first or do I just go ahead and use it since it applies to standard copyright restrictions and fair rights?
Pittenger (2003, pg 53) suggests some steps to ensure ethically responsible research:
Seek and respect the rules of the virtual community. Check the rules of the community you are researching and the guidelines regarding the privacy of communication. Also make it fully clear about who you are and what you are doing.
From personal experience there is always a thread that lists the rules of the community as well as moderators you can contact to ask for the forum’s policies. When you sign up for membership there is usually a profile editor and you can state your purpose and details clearly on the signature box so that everybody can see it when you post.
The second step is the editing of data reported. The method used to present the data collected could be shown in a way that doesn’t compromise the subject’s nor the forum’s identity. For instance, if a survey needs to be conducted forums usually have an application that takes polls and the like without revealing the members name to anyone else in the forum. The data collected can then be displayed as a thread to the whole community. This step ensures not only full disclosure of the research to the members of the forum so they too can reflect on the issues you pose, but also the simplicity of the poll in the forum ensures maximum participation of its members.
The next step is the use of multiple groups. Being a member of multiple forums with the same purpose will not only aid in protecting the subjects anonymity, but also yield a more unbiased and concise collection of data.
Such steps do address Berry’s issues of privacy and permission in an online community as well as foster positive researcher-subject rapport while protecting the integrity of the forum and its participants.
The next ethical issue Berry discussed was the Free/Libre and Open Source movement (FLOSS) and the issues it raises in regards to publication and use of the software, its alteration and licensing. He likened it to Internet research and explained the problem of subjects reacting differently when being researched (thereby giving consequentialists justification to use spying) as well as the resistance of the people in charge when information is published to the public in order to protect the interests of the community and the higher powers associated it them (Berry likens it to the wealthy business people in charge of FLOSS).
Berry suggests taking the ethics of care approach into such a problem. By not subscribing to the consequentialist and deontological positions he makes a plea to the researcher’s sense of responsive mutuality for his subjects rather than just protecting them out of duty. I believe an appeal such as this might seem a tad too optimistic. It is like leaving an iphone on the street and hoping that people would use their sense of honesty to return it; it is far too tempting to be dishonest. Moreover, fellow scholars and the public would question the publication of the results of the research and its methodologies and I fear that telling them the subjects had to rely on faith in the researcher’s sense of decency might not carry as much weight as a detailed list of protections.
As Pittenger (2003, pg 59) offers in his work that many of the ethical problems, which appear during Internet research, can be overcome by examining reactions to past research and by refining the definitions of concepts used in ethical discussions. Also, researchers could learn from detailed accounts of past methodological practices for the collection and the presentation of data in online research. This has an added bonus of the public reading about such concerns and ethical justifications concerning more controversial research and thereby causing them to understand the need for such approaches which in turn allow for a more willing participation in future studies.
In summary, the problems that Berry addressed in his study have been given possible solutions: In defining the Internet as a public or private place we understand that there can be privacy in a public place by virtue of the level of accessibility though usernames, passwords and the like. The justifications of consequentialist can be easily addressed by the questions of violating the integrity of the subject and having to report instigated remarks. The problem of Lurking and the ways to approach an online forum for research through the three steps is also offered a solution as well as addressing the difficulty encountered with unwilling participants and the hesitance of the publication of results to the public have been answered.
The Internet is still considered as new media to the general populace and it is newer ground for researchers to conduct anthropological research on the various communities available. Though it might seem a tad daunting to properly classify methods to approach this new territory we should take a leaf from what humanity has done for centuries when exploring new ground: Venture, experiment, make mistakes, then learn from them.
References:
Lester, T. (2001, March). The reinvention of piracy. The Atlantic Monthly.
Pettinger, D. (2003, Jan). Internet Research: An Opportunity to Revisit Classic Ethical Problems in Behavioral Research. Ethics and Behavior. Routledge.
Berry, D. (2004). Internet Research: Privacy, ethics and alienation: an open source approach. Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
Thomas, J. (1996) When cyber-research goes awry: the ethics of the Rimm ‘cyberporn’ study. Information Society: Volume 12 Number 2.
APA: Code of Conduct. http://www.apa.org/ethics/code2002.html#principle_b. viewed June 1st 2008.
International Media
Outline and discuss how the Associated Press is both affected by, and contributes to globalization.
What is globalization? Globalization refers to ‘both the compression of the world and the intensification of the consciousness of the world as a whole’ (Robertson, 1992; 9). It is the lifting of boundaries of different countries and the merging, sharing and influencing of different cultures and structures though many factors such as economy and politics as well as advances in technology.
Walters (1995; 3) states that globalization is a ‘social process in which the constraints of geography on social and cultural arrangements recede’. He suggests that the evidence of globalization is identifiable in increasingly global dimensions of three inter-related areas of social life that is characterized by a form of exchange. The first being the economy which is characterized by the international exchange of material goods and wealth. The second is polity, characterized by political exchange and the third being the culture, characterized by the symbolic exchange of information, ideas, entertainment, propaganda and advertising. The news media utilize all three of these globalized exchanges, being involved in the transference of information and entertainment, political influence and money. One of these news media is the Associated Press.
The Associated Press (AP) is a non-profit cooperative American news agency, directed by a board of directors (who are elected) that contributes to thousands of newspapers, radio, television and online sites though the various forms of media. It has more than 4000 employees working in over 240 bureaus worldwide and is owned by 1,500 daily newspaper members in the United States. As part of their cooperative agreement with the Associated Press, most member news organizations grant automatic permission for the AP to distribute their local news reports. Though not members, many international newspapers and broadcasters outside the United States subscribe to AP by paying a fee to use their material. (Internet, The Associated Press, 2008).
Being one of the three biggest and oldest agencies, the others being British based Reuters and France based Agence France-Press (AFP) (Campbell, 2004; 232), the AP “supplies a steady stream of news around the clock to its domestic members, international subscribers and commercial customers. It has the industry's most sophisticated digital photo network, a 24-hour continuously updated online news service, a state-of-the-art television news service and one of the largest radio networks in the United States. It also has a commercial digital photo archive, a photo library housing more than 10 million images… On any given day, more than half the world's population sees news from AP.” (Internet, The Associated Press, 2008). Its reports are broadcast in four different languages and many more independently by subscribers.
The case study of the Associated Press and the affect it has on globalization is a unique one. Because it does not have its own satellite channel and is not affiliated with any particular news corporations (being a single organization by itself) it does not posses the standard conventions we see in other news agencies such as CNN or BBC world news. Being one of the oldest news organizations around it has proclaimed itself as the ‘backbone of the world’s information system’ (Internet, The Associated Press, 2008). One of these ways is the AP style of journalism.
The Associated Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law, AP Stylebook for short, is employed by many democratic countries in journalism and newspaper writing classes. Often referred to as the Journalist’s Bible, the primary rule of the book is to report news factually without any bias while using the inverted pyramid formula to structure its text. It also teaches grammar, spelling, punctuation, choice of words and how to use current colloquies such as “BlackBerry” when making news reports. Though some countries might not use certain chapters of the book such as American Media Law, they utilize the majority of resources found in the book. It was first written and edited by Norm Goldstein (1974) with additional segments being added throughout the years. Its latest edition was just released in 2008 (Internet, Associated Press Books, 2008). In addition to the Stylebook the Associated Press has published a variety of books that many news and media institutions and schools use today.
Besides acquiring the skills to report and write news, international newspapers and media rely on the Associated Press to provide news from other parts of the globe. Because of the numerous bureaus that they have all across the world and the way their organization is dispersed, smaller news networks can rely on them to provide news from a region without having to send their correspondents to that area. All they need is to pay a fee in order to use their report. For example Singaporean newspaper; The Straits Times uses the AP to provide news reports from the west, especially from the United States and the United Kingdom.
Another unique aspect of the AP is that they do not have to deal with regulation context when it comes to news distribution. The state regulation and legal frameworks of the different countries do not apply to the AP as they are not obliged to censor content from their reporting. Basing their principals on the factual style of reporting articles are written then stored in a central database and made available to members and subscribers of the AP. A country’s news media is then free to pick and choose the articles they wish to publish.
Since globalization is two-way street we will now look at how it has affected the way the AP does its business. One of its major factors is the advance in technology and the advent of the Internet.
Consoles such as the Xbox 360 are marketed as all-round entertainment machines as they not only allow the playing of videogames but also allow users to watch movies and chat online. This convergence of media is not lost to the AP. When the Nintendo Wii was released one of the interfaces they highlighted was the implementation of a dedicated news “channel” consisting solely of articles from the Associated Press (Internet, msnbc, 2007). The news is presented as an interactive map of a globe with news reports shown in stacks to display the amount of news available in that particular region.
Another all-round device that uses the AP is the Apple iphone and ipod touch. Since its implementation of the application store with the firmware 2.0 update, Apple has allowed semi-open source programming which allows people to create applications for their Apple devices. The Associated Press thus created the Mobile News application which is a multimedia service that offers access to local and national news from trusted sources of the Digital Cooperative. It not only provides textual reports but pictures and videos as well (Internet, Associated Press Mobile News, 2008).
Videos have become part of our everyday lives since the inception of Youtube. To date thousands of people log on and visit the site to watch the wide assortment of videos available uploaded by its many users. The Associated Press then used the trend of video watching and collaborated with Youtube in September 2006 to create a site where videos of news by the AP could be watched (Internet, Youtube, 2006).
Because it covers a wide variety of topics like entertainment, sports, technology and local and overseas news, web portals such as Yahoo have news sections that need to be updated constantly and on a 24-hour basis as the Internet never sleeps. In lieu of a high demand for fresh news web portals rely on international news services such as the AP to provide breaking news articles. Google announced in 2007 that it was subscribing to the Associated Press and that content displayed on their Google News site were taken from the AP (Internet, cnet news, 2006). Yahoo is also a subscriber to the AP but it is not exclusive as it displays news from the AFP as well. With the web portals displaying the time stamp on reports of the news the AP’s image is sustained as one of the quickest and most up to date news sources.
The points made so far have covered the positive aspects of globalization and the influences to and by the news media. We will now consider the negative aspects of this phenomenon. Although subscribers to the AP can choose what news reports to use in their countries the reports themselves sometimes come from countries that practice heavy censorship, making it hard for the AP reporter. Herbert (2001; 39) points out that often the most difficult official sources for the foreign correspondent to reach are those who can best explain the story of their countries to the world. He also stated that action against these foreign reporters (whose news values do not agree with the governments) is an extreme and dangerous obstacle to free news coverage. These actions often range from expulsion from the country to kidnapping as in the case of Terry Anderson who was held hostage for six years in Lebanon.
Another negative aspect is that being one of the oldest and biggest news media providers in the west, they are accused of agenda setting. Though the AP has a wide network, they cannot be everywhere every time. Herbert (2001; 41) states that news providers determine the kind of stories to cover and share with its subscribers and that these decisions could be based on the interest shown by other global journalists. Though they might be factual about the stories they report on one could criticize them on what constitutes as a story.
In summation, we have seen the different ways globalization affects news providers. With the constant advancement in technology breaking the national and local boundaries it is evident that the way the news is consumed has changed significantly and will continue to change as information becomes readily available to us.
References:
Associated Press Books (2008) http://www.ap.org/pages/product/order.html (viewed 1st Aug 2008)
Associated Press Mobile News (2008) http://www.ap.org/mobilenews/ (viewed 1st Aug 2008)
Associated Press, The (2008) http://www.ap.org/pages/about/about.html (viewed 1st Aug 2008)
Campbell, V (2004) Information Age Journalism: Journalism in an international context. Oxford University Press.
Cnet news (2006) http://news.cnet.com/Google-reveals-payment-deal-with-AP/2100-1030_3-6102109.html (viewed 1st Aug 2008)
Herbert, J (2001) Practicing Global Journalism: Exploring reporting issues worldwide. Focal Press.
Msnbc (2007) http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/16805501/ (viewed 1st Aug 2008)
Robertson, R (1992) Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture. Sage.
Walters, M (1995) Globalization. Routledge.
Youtube (2006) http://www.youtube.com/user/AssociatedPress (viewed 1st Aug 2008)
What is globalization? Globalization refers to ‘both the compression of the world and the intensification of the consciousness of the world as a whole’ (Robertson, 1992; 9). It is the lifting of boundaries of different countries and the merging, sharing and influencing of different cultures and structures though many factors such as economy and politics as well as advances in technology.
Walters (1995; 3) states that globalization is a ‘social process in which the constraints of geography on social and cultural arrangements recede’. He suggests that the evidence of globalization is identifiable in increasingly global dimensions of three inter-related areas of social life that is characterized by a form of exchange. The first being the economy which is characterized by the international exchange of material goods and wealth. The second is polity, characterized by political exchange and the third being the culture, characterized by the symbolic exchange of information, ideas, entertainment, propaganda and advertising. The news media utilize all three of these globalized exchanges, being involved in the transference of information and entertainment, political influence and money. One of these news media is the Associated Press.
The Associated Press (AP) is a non-profit cooperative American news agency, directed by a board of directors (who are elected) that contributes to thousands of newspapers, radio, television and online sites though the various forms of media. It has more than 4000 employees working in over 240 bureaus worldwide and is owned by 1,500 daily newspaper members in the United States. As part of their cooperative agreement with the Associated Press, most member news organizations grant automatic permission for the AP to distribute their local news reports. Though not members, many international newspapers and broadcasters outside the United States subscribe to AP by paying a fee to use their material. (Internet, The Associated Press, 2008).
Being one of the three biggest and oldest agencies, the others being British based Reuters and France based Agence France-Press (AFP) (Campbell, 2004; 232), the AP “supplies a steady stream of news around the clock to its domestic members, international subscribers and commercial customers. It has the industry's most sophisticated digital photo network, a 24-hour continuously updated online news service, a state-of-the-art television news service and one of the largest radio networks in the United States. It also has a commercial digital photo archive, a photo library housing more than 10 million images… On any given day, more than half the world's population sees news from AP.” (Internet, The Associated Press, 2008). Its reports are broadcast in four different languages and many more independently by subscribers.
The case study of the Associated Press and the affect it has on globalization is a unique one. Because it does not have its own satellite channel and is not affiliated with any particular news corporations (being a single organization by itself) it does not posses the standard conventions we see in other news agencies such as CNN or BBC world news. Being one of the oldest news organizations around it has proclaimed itself as the ‘backbone of the world’s information system’ (Internet, The Associated Press, 2008). One of these ways is the AP style of journalism.
The Associated Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law, AP Stylebook for short, is employed by many democratic countries in journalism and newspaper writing classes. Often referred to as the Journalist’s Bible, the primary rule of the book is to report news factually without any bias while using the inverted pyramid formula to structure its text. It also teaches grammar, spelling, punctuation, choice of words and how to use current colloquies such as “BlackBerry” when making news reports. Though some countries might not use certain chapters of the book such as American Media Law, they utilize the majority of resources found in the book. It was first written and edited by Norm Goldstein (1974) with additional segments being added throughout the years. Its latest edition was just released in 2008 (Internet, Associated Press Books, 2008). In addition to the Stylebook the Associated Press has published a variety of books that many news and media institutions and schools use today.
Besides acquiring the skills to report and write news, international newspapers and media rely on the Associated Press to provide news from other parts of the globe. Because of the numerous bureaus that they have all across the world and the way their organization is dispersed, smaller news networks can rely on them to provide news from a region without having to send their correspondents to that area. All they need is to pay a fee in order to use their report. For example Singaporean newspaper; The Straits Times uses the AP to provide news reports from the west, especially from the United States and the United Kingdom.
Another unique aspect of the AP is that they do not have to deal with regulation context when it comes to news distribution. The state regulation and legal frameworks of the different countries do not apply to the AP as they are not obliged to censor content from their reporting. Basing their principals on the factual style of reporting articles are written then stored in a central database and made available to members and subscribers of the AP. A country’s news media is then free to pick and choose the articles they wish to publish.
Since globalization is two-way street we will now look at how it has affected the way the AP does its business. One of its major factors is the advance in technology and the advent of the Internet.
Consoles such as the Xbox 360 are marketed as all-round entertainment machines as they not only allow the playing of videogames but also allow users to watch movies and chat online. This convergence of media is not lost to the AP. When the Nintendo Wii was released one of the interfaces they highlighted was the implementation of a dedicated news “channel” consisting solely of articles from the Associated Press (Internet, msnbc, 2007). The news is presented as an interactive map of a globe with news reports shown in stacks to display the amount of news available in that particular region.
Another all-round device that uses the AP is the Apple iphone and ipod touch. Since its implementation of the application store with the firmware 2.0 update, Apple has allowed semi-open source programming which allows people to create applications for their Apple devices. The Associated Press thus created the Mobile News application which is a multimedia service that offers access to local and national news from trusted sources of the Digital Cooperative. It not only provides textual reports but pictures and videos as well (Internet, Associated Press Mobile News, 2008).
Videos have become part of our everyday lives since the inception of Youtube. To date thousands of people log on and visit the site to watch the wide assortment of videos available uploaded by its many users. The Associated Press then used the trend of video watching and collaborated with Youtube in September 2006 to create a site where videos of news by the AP could be watched (Internet, Youtube, 2006).
Because it covers a wide variety of topics like entertainment, sports, technology and local and overseas news, web portals such as Yahoo have news sections that need to be updated constantly and on a 24-hour basis as the Internet never sleeps. In lieu of a high demand for fresh news web portals rely on international news services such as the AP to provide breaking news articles. Google announced in 2007 that it was subscribing to the Associated Press and that content displayed on their Google News site were taken from the AP (Internet, cnet news, 2006). Yahoo is also a subscriber to the AP but it is not exclusive as it displays news from the AFP as well. With the web portals displaying the time stamp on reports of the news the AP’s image is sustained as one of the quickest and most up to date news sources.
The points made so far have covered the positive aspects of globalization and the influences to and by the news media. We will now consider the negative aspects of this phenomenon. Although subscribers to the AP can choose what news reports to use in their countries the reports themselves sometimes come from countries that practice heavy censorship, making it hard for the AP reporter. Herbert (2001; 39) points out that often the most difficult official sources for the foreign correspondent to reach are those who can best explain the story of their countries to the world. He also stated that action against these foreign reporters (whose news values do not agree with the governments) is an extreme and dangerous obstacle to free news coverage. These actions often range from expulsion from the country to kidnapping as in the case of Terry Anderson who was held hostage for six years in Lebanon.
Another negative aspect is that being one of the oldest and biggest news media providers in the west, they are accused of agenda setting. Though the AP has a wide network, they cannot be everywhere every time. Herbert (2001; 41) states that news providers determine the kind of stories to cover and share with its subscribers and that these decisions could be based on the interest shown by other global journalists. Though they might be factual about the stories they report on one could criticize them on what constitutes as a story.
In summation, we have seen the different ways globalization affects news providers. With the constant advancement in technology breaking the national and local boundaries it is evident that the way the news is consumed has changed significantly and will continue to change as information becomes readily available to us.
References:
Associated Press Books (2008) http://www.ap.org/pages/product/order.html (viewed 1st Aug 2008)
Associated Press Mobile News (2008) http://www.ap.org/mobilenews/ (viewed 1st Aug 2008)
Associated Press, The (2008) http://www.ap.org/pages/about/about.html (viewed 1st Aug 2008)
Campbell, V (2004) Information Age Journalism: Journalism in an international context. Oxford University Press.
Cnet news (2006) http://news.cnet.com/Google-reveals-payment-deal-with-AP/2100-1030_3-6102109.html (viewed 1st Aug 2008)
Herbert, J (2001) Practicing Global Journalism: Exploring reporting issues worldwide. Focal Press.
Msnbc (2007) http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/16805501/ (viewed 1st Aug 2008)
Robertson, R (1992) Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture. Sage.
Walters, M (1995) Globalization. Routledge.
Youtube (2006) http://www.youtube.com/user/AssociatedPress (viewed 1st Aug 2008)
Hollywood and Genre
Using one film genre as a case study, write a 1000 word position paper arguing either for or against the following statement:
‘Genre is the best approach for the academic study of Hollywood film texts’
The current conventional definitions of genres tend to be based on the notion that they constitute particular conventions of content (themes, setting) and/or form (including structure and style), which are shared by the texts (movies), which are regarded as belonging to them. (Chandler 2000, internet). In this paper I will attempt to show that genre can be used for the academic of study of Hollywood film by using musicals as examples.
One of the main arguments of genre theory is that the themes are inadequate as a basis for defining genre as any theme may appear in any genre (Bordwell 1989, 147). However, the framework of genre can be seen as offering ‘default’ expectations that act as a starting point rather than a straightjacket (Chandler 2000, internet). Running away from the Nazis in the Sound of Music or a discourse of racism in Hairspray are common themes in movies but they are different from other films in the way they are presented (with music and dance).
Stam (2000, 128-129) proposes that defining genres are theoretical minefields. He identifies four key problems that arise from genre theory: the breath/narrowness of labels (Extension), having preconceived ideas for genre membership (Normativism), items belonging to one genre (Monolithic definitions) and genres seen as evolving through a standardized life cycle (Biologism).
In addressing extension (Chandler 2000, internet) proposes that as the generic corpus of text expands, genres will change over time and they form new genres and sub-genres as older genres are discontinued (i.e. Musicals can be sub divided into many labels according to the type of song: Operatic (Phantom of the Opera), Jazz (Chicago) and Pop (Grease)).
To counter normativism Gledhill (1985, 63) suggests that the main genres help to increase the ‘efficiency’ of communication. They may even function as a means of preventing a text from dissolving into ‘individualism and incomprehensibility’. McQuail (1987, 200) says genre may be considered as a practical device for helping any mass medium to produce consistently and effectively and to relate its production to the ‘set of expectations’ (Neale 1980, 51) of its customers. It allows individuals to plan their choices and therefore displaying relations between the two main parties of Mass Communication. So people watching a musical will expect a song-filled film and not see instead an action, stunt filled movie.
Though it can be further debated as the knowledge of the genre would lead to passive consumption by its viewers, Knight (1994) claims that making sense of texts within genres is an active process of constructing meaning. So though watching musicals like Chicago and Marry Poppins might seem similar, they do have different meanings and address different issues (feminism and the stifling of youth respectively).
Concerning the audience’s interpretation of text, Chandler (2000, internet) suggests that how we study genre depends on our purpose. Its definition in terms of social science should be related to its research. If research is carried out to find how readers identify musicals, its focus should be on the identification process instead of what musicals are in theory.
For monolithic definitions, Gledhill (1985, 60-64) offers that there are no rigid rules of inclusion and exclusion of genres; they do not consist of a fixed number of listable items. Because the frame/ground-work for the musical is established, flexibility to work around with different items (issues of acceptance in Hairspray and Grease or the meaning of family in Mamma Mia) is included without any compromise of genre. Steve Neale (1980, 48-50) contributes that ‘genres are instances of repetition and difference and that the difference is absolutely essential to the economy of the genre’. There is also an argument which poses that genres are seen as constraining inhibiting authorial creativity. Gledhill (1985, 63) however notes that some of those who write within a genre work in creative ‘tension’ with the conventions, attempting a personal inflection of them (Gledhill 1985, 63) as exampled above.
As for biologism, Chandler (2000, internet) argues that genres can be studied as historical phenomena, only applicable at that specific moment in time. Haywrad (1996, 50) proclaims that genre conventions change according to the ideological climate of its time. The issues of World War 2 in the Sound of Music, crime in the 40s in Chicago, racism in the 60s in Hairspray are such examples. The boundaries between genres keep shifting and they become more permeable (Abercrombie 1996, 45). Hence it doesn’t confuse the study of genre theory; in fact by tracing it back historically we can understand the current evolution of musicals. Andrew Tudor (1974, 225) claims that there are three main characteristics of evolution; innovations are added to pre-existing elements (evolution of female sexuality in Mamma Mia), the innovations are consistent therefore conservative (music and dance is still a major part of the film) and these processes lead to the crystallization of specialist sub-genres, differentiation (the musical is based off songs by ABBA, making it a pop song musical).
In discussing genre theory and its academic use, Miller (1984) argues that both in writing and reading within genres we learn purposes appropriate to the genre. In relation to the mass media it could be argued that particular genres develop, frame and legitimate particular concerns, questions and pleasures. These relations are discussed thoroughly in ‘Uses and Gratifications’ and ethnography research. Abercrombie concurs that ‘part of the pleasure is knowing what the genre rules are, knowing that it will have to be solve problems in the framework and wondering how it’ll go about doing so’. This means that when a viewer watches a musical, he expects to see how the characters express their feelings of joy and aguish through song, how the plot develops and the final fanfare of the musical which ends on a positive note.
Aristotle (350 B.C) once said that “Every drama, therefore, must have six parts, which parts determine its quality—namely, Plot, Character, Diction, Thought, Spectacle, Song” This in turn evolves into the current conventions of genre, which musicals can be attributed to; Setting: anywhere in a different mode of reality where emotions and instincts are given symbolic expression through music and dance (Telotte 2002, 48). Narrative: Plot is resolved though a “relationship”. Character: Ability to dance and sing. Style: Bright, colorful. Stars: Julie Andrews (Sound of Music, Marry Poppins) and other musically aligned celebrities. The final convention; Iconography would seem like a problem but I argue that it is the music of the musical that makes it unique. No other film breaks out into song, disrupting everyday functions like the musical does.
To conclude I pose these statements that prove genre theory. Derrida (1981, 61) states that a text cannot belong to no genre, there is no such thing as genre-less text and that even if theorists abandon genre theory people will use it in everyday life to categorize texts (Hodge & Kress 1988, 7).
The fanfare I am referring to is the final song of the musical. It is usually lively, inspiring and composed in a way that it intends to uplift the spectator in a ‘happily ever after’ conclusion.
References:
Abercrombie, Nicholas (1996) Television and Society. Cambridge: Polity Press
Aristotle (350 B.C) Poetics http://www.identitytheory.com/etexts/poetics6.html (viewed 2nd July 2008)
Bordwell, David (1989) Making Meaning: Inference and Rhetoric in the interpretation of cinema. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Chandler, Daniel (2000) An introduction to genre theory http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/intgenre/intgenre.html (viewed 1st July 2008)
Derrida, Jacques (1981) The law of genre. In W J T Mitchell (Ed): On Narrative. Chicago: University of Chicago Press
Gledhill, Christine (1985) Genre. In Pam Cook (Ed): The Cinema Book. London: British Film Institute
Hayward, Susan (1996) Key Concepts in Cinema Studies. London: Routledge
Hodge, Robert & Gunther Kress (1988) Social Semiotics. Cambridge: Polity
Knight, Deborah (1994) Making sense of genre. Film and Philosophy 2.
McQuail, Denis (1987) Mass Communication Theory: An Introduction. London: Sage
Miller, Carolyn R (1984) Genre as social action. Quarterly journal of Speech 70; 151-67. Reprinted in Freedman & Medway (1994a, op cit) pg 23-42
Neale, Stephen (1980) Genre. London: British Film Institute.
Stam, Robert (2000) Film Theory. Oxford; Blackwell
Telotte, Jay P (2002) “The New Hollywood Musical: From Saturday Night Fever to Footloose.” Genre and Contemporary Hollywood. Ed. Steve Neale. London: British Film Institute, 2002. 48-61.
Tudor, Andrew (1974) Image and Influence: Studies in the Sociology of Film. London: George Allen & Unwin
‘Genre is the best approach for the academic study of Hollywood film texts’
The current conventional definitions of genres tend to be based on the notion that they constitute particular conventions of content (themes, setting) and/or form (including structure and style), which are shared by the texts (movies), which are regarded as belonging to them. (Chandler 2000, internet). In this paper I will attempt to show that genre can be used for the academic of study of Hollywood film by using musicals as examples.
One of the main arguments of genre theory is that the themes are inadequate as a basis for defining genre as any theme may appear in any genre (Bordwell 1989, 147). However, the framework of genre can be seen as offering ‘default’ expectations that act as a starting point rather than a straightjacket (Chandler 2000, internet). Running away from the Nazis in the Sound of Music or a discourse of racism in Hairspray are common themes in movies but they are different from other films in the way they are presented (with music and dance).
Stam (2000, 128-129) proposes that defining genres are theoretical minefields. He identifies four key problems that arise from genre theory: the breath/narrowness of labels (Extension), having preconceived ideas for genre membership (Normativism), items belonging to one genre (Monolithic definitions) and genres seen as evolving through a standardized life cycle (Biologism).
In addressing extension (Chandler 2000, internet) proposes that as the generic corpus of text expands, genres will change over time and they form new genres and sub-genres as older genres are discontinued (i.e. Musicals can be sub divided into many labels according to the type of song: Operatic (Phantom of the Opera), Jazz (Chicago) and Pop (Grease)).
To counter normativism Gledhill (1985, 63) suggests that the main genres help to increase the ‘efficiency’ of communication. They may even function as a means of preventing a text from dissolving into ‘individualism and incomprehensibility’. McQuail (1987, 200) says genre may be considered as a practical device for helping any mass medium to produce consistently and effectively and to relate its production to the ‘set of expectations’ (Neale 1980, 51) of its customers. It allows individuals to plan their choices and therefore displaying relations between the two main parties of Mass Communication. So people watching a musical will expect a song-filled film and not see instead an action, stunt filled movie.
Though it can be further debated as the knowledge of the genre would lead to passive consumption by its viewers, Knight (1994) claims that making sense of texts within genres is an active process of constructing meaning. So though watching musicals like Chicago and Marry Poppins might seem similar, they do have different meanings and address different issues (feminism and the stifling of youth respectively).
Concerning the audience’s interpretation of text, Chandler (2000, internet) suggests that how we study genre depends on our purpose. Its definition in terms of social science should be related to its research. If research is carried out to find how readers identify musicals, its focus should be on the identification process instead of what musicals are in theory.
For monolithic definitions, Gledhill (1985, 60-64) offers that there are no rigid rules of inclusion and exclusion of genres; they do not consist of a fixed number of listable items. Because the frame/ground-work for the musical is established, flexibility to work around with different items (issues of acceptance in Hairspray and Grease or the meaning of family in Mamma Mia) is included without any compromise of genre. Steve Neale (1980, 48-50) contributes that ‘genres are instances of repetition and difference and that the difference is absolutely essential to the economy of the genre’. There is also an argument which poses that genres are seen as constraining inhibiting authorial creativity. Gledhill (1985, 63) however notes that some of those who write within a genre work in creative ‘tension’ with the conventions, attempting a personal inflection of them (Gledhill 1985, 63) as exampled above.
As for biologism, Chandler (2000, internet) argues that genres can be studied as historical phenomena, only applicable at that specific moment in time. Haywrad (1996, 50) proclaims that genre conventions change according to the ideological climate of its time. The issues of World War 2 in the Sound of Music, crime in the 40s in Chicago, racism in the 60s in Hairspray are such examples. The boundaries between genres keep shifting and they become more permeable (Abercrombie 1996, 45). Hence it doesn’t confuse the study of genre theory; in fact by tracing it back historically we can understand the current evolution of musicals. Andrew Tudor (1974, 225) claims that there are three main characteristics of evolution; innovations are added to pre-existing elements (evolution of female sexuality in Mamma Mia), the innovations are consistent therefore conservative (music and dance is still a major part of the film) and these processes lead to the crystallization of specialist sub-genres, differentiation (the musical is based off songs by ABBA, making it a pop song musical).
In discussing genre theory and its academic use, Miller (1984) argues that both in writing and reading within genres we learn purposes appropriate to the genre. In relation to the mass media it could be argued that particular genres develop, frame and legitimate particular concerns, questions and pleasures. These relations are discussed thoroughly in ‘Uses and Gratifications’ and ethnography research. Abercrombie concurs that ‘part of the pleasure is knowing what the genre rules are, knowing that it will have to be solve problems in the framework and wondering how it’ll go about doing so’. This means that when a viewer watches a musical, he expects to see how the characters express their feelings of joy and aguish through song, how the plot develops and the final fanfare of the musical which ends on a positive note.
Aristotle (350 B.C) once said that “Every drama, therefore, must have six parts, which parts determine its quality—namely, Plot, Character, Diction, Thought, Spectacle, Song” This in turn evolves into the current conventions of genre, which musicals can be attributed to; Setting: anywhere in a different mode of reality where emotions and instincts are given symbolic expression through music and dance (Telotte 2002, 48). Narrative: Plot is resolved though a “relationship”. Character: Ability to dance and sing. Style: Bright, colorful. Stars: Julie Andrews (Sound of Music, Marry Poppins) and other musically aligned celebrities. The final convention; Iconography would seem like a problem but I argue that it is the music of the musical that makes it unique. No other film breaks out into song, disrupting everyday functions like the musical does.
To conclude I pose these statements that prove genre theory. Derrida (1981, 61) states that a text cannot belong to no genre, there is no such thing as genre-less text and that even if theorists abandon genre theory people will use it in everyday life to categorize texts (Hodge & Kress 1988, 7).
The fanfare I am referring to is the final song of the musical. It is usually lively, inspiring and composed in a way that it intends to uplift the spectator in a ‘happily ever after’ conclusion.
References:
Abercrombie, Nicholas (1996) Television and Society. Cambridge: Polity Press
Aristotle (350 B.C) Poetics http://www.identitytheory.com/etexts/poetics6.html (viewed 2nd July 2008)
Bordwell, David (1989) Making Meaning: Inference and Rhetoric in the interpretation of cinema. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Chandler, Daniel (2000) An introduction to genre theory http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/intgenre/intgenre.html (viewed 1st July 2008)
Derrida, Jacques (1981) The law of genre. In W J T Mitchell (Ed): On Narrative. Chicago: University of Chicago Press
Gledhill, Christine (1985) Genre. In Pam Cook (Ed): The Cinema Book. London: British Film Institute
Hayward, Susan (1996) Key Concepts in Cinema Studies. London: Routledge
Hodge, Robert & Gunther Kress (1988) Social Semiotics. Cambridge: Polity
Knight, Deborah (1994) Making sense of genre. Film and Philosophy 2.
McQuail, Denis (1987) Mass Communication Theory: An Introduction. London: Sage
Miller, Carolyn R (1984) Genre as social action. Quarterly journal of Speech 70; 151-67. Reprinted in Freedman & Medway (1994a, op cit) pg 23-42
Neale, Stephen (1980) Genre. London: British Film Institute.
Stam, Robert (2000) Film Theory. Oxford; Blackwell
Telotte, Jay P (2002) “The New Hollywood Musical: From Saturday Night Fever to Footloose.” Genre and Contemporary Hollywood. Ed. Steve Neale. London: British Film Institute, 2002. 48-61.
Tudor, Andrew (1974) Image and Influence: Studies in the Sociology of Film. London: George Allen & Unwin
Democracy, Journalism and Society
How useful is the notion of the Public Sphere relevant in contemporary media for assessing political significance in a democratic society?
Case Study: Videogames and Moral Panics
“Men go mad in herds while they only recover their senses slowly, one by one” (Mackay, 1956; pxx)
The notion of the public sphere was thought of by Habermas (1989) who theorized that the democratic form of society consists of a space (that may not be necessarily physical) where people can discuss issues without discrimination. This idea is the foundation of democracy; where everyone has a voice and is heard. By using the model of moral panics I will attempt to prove that the public sphere idea is flawed and does not promote the democratic ideal.
The model of moral panics consists of many elements (primarily people) that dynamically interact with one another with the purpose of inducing fear and calling attention on a particular issue to the public. Cohen (1972; 9) coined the term moral panics and defined it firstly as “a condition, episode, person or group of persons emerges to become defined as a threat to societal values and interests.” This model then proceeds into five other traits/stages. They are (2) its nature being presented in a stylized stereotypical fashion; (3) the moral barricades are manned by editors, politicians and other right thinking people; (4) socially accredited “experts” pronounce their diagnosis and solutions; (5) ways of coping are evolved or (more often) resorted to and finally (6) the condition disappears, submerges or deteriorates and becomes more visible.
To further elaborate on the model I will explain the stages in detail and relate them to the media effects argument against violent videogames; that they cause adolescents to commit violent crimes. I sampled newspaper articles from the Daily Mail between the period of March 2008 till present that address such issues and will use them as examples to explain the model of moral panics and its participants.
The first stage of moral panics concerns the object of the panic and its relation to the people involved. In this case violent videogames are the object while its relation to the people are the gamers who play these games. The people who commit these crimes are known as folk devils (Cohen, 1972; 10). They are the people whom society and the media deem we shouldn’t be by association and imitation of their practices; in this case gamers and the playing of violent videogames. The identity of the folk devil is created by the media and is subject to changes determined by them; this case a male adolescent who plays videogames. This is profiling, it generalizes all gamers in a bad light. The folk devil is then subjected to persecution by the moral barricades.
Editors, politicians and other right thinking people are these moral barricades and the creators of moral panics. Newspapers have political alliances with parties in order to propagate their ideology to the masses. Because they stand to profit from creating moral panics (editors from sales of newspapers and politicians with public approval) these group of people are collectively known as Moral Entrepreneurs (Becker, 1963). In the articles about violent videogames politicians from different parties (i.e. Conservative, Tory) are seen giving their support against violent videogames while calling for strict legislation against them. Why then does society listen to them? It is because the newspapers publish the moral panic and the public look to the news as a main source of information about the normative contours of society, it informs us about the right/wrong, boundaries and the current evils prevalent in our current era (Erickson, 1966; 7).
This ‘new media corrupting youth/women/minorities’ is not a new phenomenon (Rutter & Bryce, 2006; 207). According to Petly (1997; 87), the middle class (Moral Entrepreneurs) have been quick to disapprove of popular entertainment that the working class indulges in the past. Their justification being that they are more likely to be affected by media messages than the middle class are. This is unfounded (Petley 1997; 100) yet the media still use it to propagate these ideas and directed against an outgroup (folk devils); their power to justify discrimination is enormous (Critcher, 2003; 171).
To support their claims the media employs the use of socially accredited “experts” pronounce their diagnosis and solutions in fields which they might not be able apply their expertise to. For example, policemen who are quoted by the press that say youth crime is caused by playing violent videogames. These are merely hunches and prejudices with no claims to an expertise won in the rough and tumble research (Murdock, 1997; 76). In the articles I’ve read most of them contain opinions given by psychologists, media regulators (i.e. Ofcom) and the police.
Becker (1963) claims that when public concern about a particular moral panic is generated, a Moral Enterprise is formed. This is ‘the creation of a new fragment of the moral constitution of society.’ In this stage, society changes itself for the object of moral panic and ways of coping are evolved or resorted to. This is the period where the Moral Entrepreneurs shine; politicians enforce legislations in attempts to stop the crimes from occurring. For videogames, rating systems are carefully scrutinized and revised while threats of heavy fines are enforced to videogame shops who sell games to people below the legal age.
It is imperative to highlight that so far the exchanges on ideas of moral panic, legislation and prohibition circulate only around the media, politicians and “experts”. If enough of these decide there is an issue and that action is required, a moral panic becomes possible (Critcher, 2003; 138). Society is not involved in this exchange. This means that a ‘discourse of the people is a discourse about the people, not by them’ and that their viewpoint is frequently assumed (Astroff & Nyberg, 1992).
The final stage is the panic disappears, submerges or deteriorates and becomes more visible. This means that eventually the object of moral panic (violent videogames) becomes largely ignored, bored by the recycling of the same issues (Downs, 1972; 38-50).
In summary, the model of moral panics have shown how the media and the government enforce their ideology unto society though hegemony (one sided exchange of ideas) and agenda setting (creation of moral panics and folk devils) to justify the discrimination and profiling of a subset of society. All these elements are contrary to the idea of democracy. Therefore I concur that this model proves that the public sphere is not relevant in assessing political significance in a democratic society.
References:
Astroff, R.J & Nyberg, A.K (1992) Discursive hierarchies and the construction of crisis in the news: a case study, Discourse and Society, 3(1).
Becker, H (1997) [1963] Outsiders, Free Press.
Cohen, S (1972) Folk Devils and Moral Panics: The creation of mods and rockers, New York: St Martin’s Press.
Critcher, Chas (2003) Moral Panics and the media, Open University Press.
Downs, A (1972) Up and down with ecology: the ‘issue-attention’ cycle, The Public Interest, 28.
Erikson, Kai T. (2004) [1966]. Wayward Puritans: A Study in the Sociology of Deviance, Revised Edition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Harbermas, J (1991) [1989] The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society (Studies in Contemporary German Social Thought), Paperback edition. The MIT Press.
Mackay, C (1956) Extraordinary Delusions and the Madness of Crowds, London: George Harrap.
Murdock, G (1997) Ill Effects: The media/violence debate; Martin Barker & Julian Petley (Eds) London and New York: Routledge.
Petley, J (1997) Ill Effects: The media/violence debate; Martin Barker & Julian Petley (Eds) London and New York: Routledge.
Rutter J & Bryce J (2006) ‘Digital games and the violence debate’ in Understanding Digital Games, Sage Publications.
Case Study: Videogames and Moral Panics
“Men go mad in herds while they only recover their senses slowly, one by one” (Mackay, 1956; pxx)
The notion of the public sphere was thought of by Habermas (1989) who theorized that the democratic form of society consists of a space (that may not be necessarily physical) where people can discuss issues without discrimination. This idea is the foundation of democracy; where everyone has a voice and is heard. By using the model of moral panics I will attempt to prove that the public sphere idea is flawed and does not promote the democratic ideal.
The model of moral panics consists of many elements (primarily people) that dynamically interact with one another with the purpose of inducing fear and calling attention on a particular issue to the public. Cohen (1972; 9) coined the term moral panics and defined it firstly as “a condition, episode, person or group of persons emerges to become defined as a threat to societal values and interests.” This model then proceeds into five other traits/stages. They are (2) its nature being presented in a stylized stereotypical fashion; (3) the moral barricades are manned by editors, politicians and other right thinking people; (4) socially accredited “experts” pronounce their diagnosis and solutions; (5) ways of coping are evolved or (more often) resorted to and finally (6) the condition disappears, submerges or deteriorates and becomes more visible.
To further elaborate on the model I will explain the stages in detail and relate them to the media effects argument against violent videogames; that they cause adolescents to commit violent crimes. I sampled newspaper articles from the Daily Mail between the period of March 2008 till present that address such issues and will use them as examples to explain the model of moral panics and its participants.
The first stage of moral panics concerns the object of the panic and its relation to the people involved. In this case violent videogames are the object while its relation to the people are the gamers who play these games. The people who commit these crimes are known as folk devils (Cohen, 1972; 10). They are the people whom society and the media deem we shouldn’t be by association and imitation of their practices; in this case gamers and the playing of violent videogames. The identity of the folk devil is created by the media and is subject to changes determined by them; this case a male adolescent who plays videogames. This is profiling, it generalizes all gamers in a bad light. The folk devil is then subjected to persecution by the moral barricades.
Editors, politicians and other right thinking people are these moral barricades and the creators of moral panics. Newspapers have political alliances with parties in order to propagate their ideology to the masses. Because they stand to profit from creating moral panics (editors from sales of newspapers and politicians with public approval) these group of people are collectively known as Moral Entrepreneurs (Becker, 1963). In the articles about violent videogames politicians from different parties (i.e. Conservative, Tory) are seen giving their support against violent videogames while calling for strict legislation against them. Why then does society listen to them? It is because the newspapers publish the moral panic and the public look to the news as a main source of information about the normative contours of society, it informs us about the right/wrong, boundaries and the current evils prevalent in our current era (Erickson, 1966; 7).
This ‘new media corrupting youth/women/minorities’ is not a new phenomenon (Rutter & Bryce, 2006; 207). According to Petly (1997; 87), the middle class (Moral Entrepreneurs) have been quick to disapprove of popular entertainment that the working class indulges in the past. Their justification being that they are more likely to be affected by media messages than the middle class are. This is unfounded (Petley 1997; 100) yet the media still use it to propagate these ideas and directed against an outgroup (folk devils); their power to justify discrimination is enormous (Critcher, 2003; 171).
To support their claims the media employs the use of socially accredited “experts” pronounce their diagnosis and solutions in fields which they might not be able apply their expertise to. For example, policemen who are quoted by the press that say youth crime is caused by playing violent videogames. These are merely hunches and prejudices with no claims to an expertise won in the rough and tumble research (Murdock, 1997; 76). In the articles I’ve read most of them contain opinions given by psychologists, media regulators (i.e. Ofcom) and the police.
Becker (1963) claims that when public concern about a particular moral panic is generated, a Moral Enterprise is formed. This is ‘the creation of a new fragment of the moral constitution of society.’ In this stage, society changes itself for the object of moral panic and ways of coping are evolved or resorted to. This is the period where the Moral Entrepreneurs shine; politicians enforce legislations in attempts to stop the crimes from occurring. For videogames, rating systems are carefully scrutinized and revised while threats of heavy fines are enforced to videogame shops who sell games to people below the legal age.
It is imperative to highlight that so far the exchanges on ideas of moral panic, legislation and prohibition circulate only around the media, politicians and “experts”. If enough of these decide there is an issue and that action is required, a moral panic becomes possible (Critcher, 2003; 138). Society is not involved in this exchange. This means that a ‘discourse of the people is a discourse about the people, not by them’ and that their viewpoint is frequently assumed (Astroff & Nyberg, 1992).
The final stage is the panic disappears, submerges or deteriorates and becomes more visible. This means that eventually the object of moral panic (violent videogames) becomes largely ignored, bored by the recycling of the same issues (Downs, 1972; 38-50).
In summary, the model of moral panics have shown how the media and the government enforce their ideology unto society though hegemony (one sided exchange of ideas) and agenda setting (creation of moral panics and folk devils) to justify the discrimination and profiling of a subset of society. All these elements are contrary to the idea of democracy. Therefore I concur that this model proves that the public sphere is not relevant in assessing political significance in a democratic society.
References:
Astroff, R.J & Nyberg, A.K (1992) Discursive hierarchies and the construction of crisis in the news: a case study, Discourse and Society, 3(1).
Becker, H (1997) [1963] Outsiders, Free Press.
Cohen, S (1972) Folk Devils and Moral Panics: The creation of mods and rockers, New York: St Martin’s Press.
Critcher, Chas (2003) Moral Panics and the media, Open University Press.
Downs, A (1972) Up and down with ecology: the ‘issue-attention’ cycle, The Public Interest, 28.
Erikson, Kai T. (2004) [1966]. Wayward Puritans: A Study in the Sociology of Deviance, Revised Edition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Harbermas, J (1991) [1989] The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society (Studies in Contemporary German Social Thought), Paperback edition. The MIT Press.
Mackay, C (1956) Extraordinary Delusions and the Madness of Crowds, London: George Harrap.
Murdock, G (1997) Ill Effects: The media/violence debate; Martin Barker & Julian Petley (Eds) London and New York: Routledge.
Petley, J (1997) Ill Effects: The media/violence debate; Martin Barker & Julian Petley (Eds) London and New York: Routledge.
Rutter J & Bryce J (2006) ‘Digital games and the violence debate’ in Understanding Digital Games, Sage Publications.
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